Chapter 6 3. After a toss, return to the starting point

The year General Washington became President of the United States, the French Revolution broke out.Before the revolution, French capitalist industry and commerce ranked first on the European continent. Although French industry and commerce was second to none in Europe, its rural capitalism was weak, unlike Britain and the United States.When we think of the most famous products in France, we immediately have the answer: wine, perfume, LV, mainly luxury goods, so France's industry and commerce is second to none in continental Europe.When an LV bag is the most expensive, it can sell for more than 300,000 U.S. dollars. Of course, this item is exported to make money.The manufacturing, production and sales of French luxury goods have little to do with the countryside.The land enclosure movement in Britain made the countryside completely capitalist.American plantations grow wheat, coffee, and cotton. These things are all for sale. They are all commodity economies, and France cannot do it.Therefore, in the early stage of capitalist development, France lagged behind the United Kingdom and the United States, which was related to its industrial structure. Its industrial structure was silk, porcelain, and perfume. These things played little role in disintegrating the rural natural economy. The same as in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

The feudal autocracy in France has a strict hierarchy. The first level is priests, the second level is nobles, and the third level is all ordinary people.Except for priests and nobles, the rest belong to the third estate.The capitalists belong to the third estate, the beggars belong to the third estate, and the factory owner and his employees belong to the third estate.The first two classes wear leg-length shorts, stockings, high heels, wigs, and powder.The third level is not allowed to wear shorts, but to wear long trousers, which is ridiculed as "san-culottes man".The main components of sans-culottes are small handicraftsmen, small traders, small shopkeepers and other working people, including some rich people.They were the main force of the urban revolution and participated in several armed uprisings during the Great Revolution.The king of France publicly stated that the first class serves the king with bells and bless the king with a long life; the second class serves the king with swords, that is, the three musketeers and the three musketeers; To serve the king is to pay taxes.The two ranks account for 3% of the French population, but the third rank accounts for 97%, so this system is insincere, you let so many people hate so few people, once so many people turn their backs, so few people will definitely die up.

Why is China's traditional system so strong?It is because the identities of the four classes of scholars, farmers, businessmen, and businessmen are interchangeable.Farmers can become scholars if they take the imperial examination.It doesn't have to be a rebellion.So the court worked hard to expand the ruling class.Since the Song Dynasty, 60% of the people who became officials in the imperial examinations were the children of Bai Ding, and the third generation of Zha did not even pass a scholar. Do you think the second generation of officials need to study the imperial examinations?Therefore, if the children of Baiding study and become officials, the ranks of the ruling class will become more and more stable.

The French system is very inconsiderate. Why do 97% of us pay taxes, and the other 3% ring bells and play swords all day long?So bullying!Therefore, the French revolution is easy to succeed, and the development of capitalism is hindered by the autocratic system. If there is no revolution, the status of the third estate cannot be changed. The Bourbon dynasty ruled France at that time, and the last king before the revolution was Louis XVI.Louis XVI is a famous locksmith king in French history. He ignored the government and repaired locks and watches all day long. He was comparable to the Emperor Apocalypse of the Ming Dynasty. He was the "Carpenter Emperor" and this was the "Locksmith King".Louis XVI stammered and was unwilling to see ministers. He spent all day repairing watches and locks. He claimed that there was no lock in Europe that he could not open. Not open.His queen is Princess Marie of Austria?Antoinette, Queen Teresia's most beloved youngest daughter, a girl who has been used to her since she was a child, married to be a queen. Do you think this is a good person?Queen Mary spends money like spreading leaflets. She is heavily in debt and has no concept of numbers at all.She bought a necklace for 5 million francs, and if she had no money, she borrowed money from the banker, the third level, and the debt collectors went to her house every day.The queen has been married to the French royal family for more than 20 years. Her life circle is to draw a circle with the Palace of Versailles as the center and a radius of 20 miles, and she has never left this circle at all.Don't do business all day long, just throw some masquerade balls, banquets, messy, extravagant and lustful.She never went outside to see how her people lived, never entered the home of an ordinary Parisian citizen.

She doesn't care about the famine outside. Some people say that people can't eat bread, but she says that if they can't eat bread, they can eat cake.This is the same as the famous stupid emperor Jin Huidi in Chinese history. The common people had no food to eat during the famine. The emperor said that they could eat meat, so I didn’t eat food and only ate meat.With such a king and queen, can the country be better off?The government is heavily indebted, with debts as high as 4.5 billion.The annual income of the French government is only 400 to 500 million yuan, which is not enough to pay back the interest, let alone the principal.In this case, the king could only be forced to hold a third-level meeting in May 1789. This third-level meeting had not been held for 175 years. This time, Louis XVI actually wanted to pay off the more than 4 billion owed. , Still want to continue to borrow, want to collect taxes from the people, and immediately anger the people, leading to a revolution.

The third-level meeting was held in the Palace of Versailles, which was repaired by the Sun King Louis XIV. The sun image with a human face is carved everywhere in the palace, which is the symbol of Louis XIV.There are rows of colonnades in the meeting room, outside the colonnades are representatives of the third rank, inside the colonnade are representatives of the first and second ranks, the farthest is a domed crown, and below the crown is His Majesty the King throne.The gate is made of heavy white gilded oak, with intricate carvings on the bottom and a human face with a sun on it, very beautiful.

When the third-level meeting is held, the representatives of the first and second levels enter through the carved gate.Representatives of the first rank wore fine robes, white satin with icons and crosses embroidered with gold thread, and carried heavy instruments—crosses and scepters made of pure gold.The representatives of the second class are all in military uniform with swords, wigs, powder, shorts, high heels, and stockings. The medals are jingling, and the diamonds on the swords are dazzling.As soon as they entered, the main gate was closed, the small doors on both sides opened, and the sansculottes representing the third estate entered.They are wearing black or gray clothes, what is ugly and what to wear, these people must be very angry, can I afford to wear them?The big capitalist is so rich, and the king still owes me several million. It is the law that stipulates that I cannot wear good-looking clothes. Those nobles wear the money I lent him to buy them.

It turns out that there are 300 representatives for the first level and 300 representatives for the second level, and 600 representatives for the third level. It sounds okay to you, but the problem is that the first two levels account for only 3% of the population, and the third level has 600 representatives. The population of grades accounts for 97%, why is the proportion of 97% of the population as much as 3%?This should not be the case.Furthermore, it is very funny during the meeting. The meeting is held in separate halls. The representatives of the privileged level are in one hall, and the representatives of the third level are in another hall. Level one vote, don't vote, you know the odds, it must be 2:1.One vote per level, even if the first level represents 10 people, the second level represents 10 people, and the third level represents 10,000 people, it is 2:1, useless.So now the representatives of the third level require everyone to hold a meeting together, and cannot operate in secret in the secret room. I will watch you, you supervise me, and vote by head when voting.If voting by head count, there will definitely not be representatives of the third level to support the privileged level. On the contrary, the liberal nobles and low-level priests in the privileged level may support the third level, and even senior priests may support the third level. .Because they advocate amending the law, priests are also mortals and want to get married, but the previous law does not allow it.

When the meeting was held in the past, His Majesty the King walked into the venue, and the representatives of the three levels stood up and took off their hats, cheering and saluting to His Majesty the King, then the representatives of the privileged level put on their hats and sat down, and the representatives of the third level stood there holding their hats and listening to the king's speech .This time the representative of the third estate also put on his hat and sat down.The king saw that something was going to happen, and these people refused to accept it.So the king started beating drums in his heart. He stuttered already, and he stuttered even more when he was nervous. As soon as he came to the stage, he said, let's go straight to the point, gentlemen, I called you here today to ask you for money.When the representatives of the third level heard it, what?Want money?The scolding mother left the stage, and went to the lawn of the palace. Let's hold a meeting by ourselves and stop playing with them.Then, the liberal aristocrats and low-ranking priests also came out. The rest of the big nobles and senior priests saw that there were only a few of us left, so let’s go out too. The king was the only one left in the venue.The lawn of the palace was lively, and everyone continued to hold meetings.The three-level meeting was immediately changed into a constitutional assembly, which wanted to formulate a constitution, limit royal power, and turn France into a British-style constitutional monarchy.The king, who came out to watch the excitement, had his nose crooked, and immediately mobilized the army to suppress it.This suppression made the people of Paris angry, and they rose up to attack the Bastille, and the Great Revolution broke out.

July 14, 1789, later became a national holiday in France.France is the only country in the world that insists on holding a military parade every year on its National Day. Of course, unlike China, people have to practice military parades.When I went to France for the first time, it happened to be July 16, two days after the military parade, the latest Leclerc main battle tanks were left on the main road, and citizens could climb up to visit European countries Even in Southeast Asia, when driving past the air force base, the planes are parked there one by one, not afraid of being damaged by people, and not keeping secrets. Satellite photos can see everything, there is nothing mysterious about it.After the Bastille was destroyed, a square was built, which was as big as a roundabout, with a bronze commemorative column on it, and a golden Statue of Liberty on top, holding a torch.It is said that the foundation of the wall of the Bastille is still there, that is, the wall of that subway station.Why bother to storm the Bastille?Because this is a prison for political prisoners and a symbol of feudal rule.After breaking it down, it was found that there were only 7 prisoners inside, and they were all criminals.

After the attack on the Bastille, France began its initial transformation and became a constitutional monarchy.The constitutional monarchists are also called the Feuillants because they are active in the Feuillon Club. They are representatives of the big bourgeoisie and represent the interests of the financial bourgeoisie.The financial bourgeoisie, as the name suggests, open banks and lend usury.Their money was mainly lent to the king.The king owes 4.5 billion, not to the common people, and the common people collect taxes directly, so there is no need to owe it.So they insisted on keeping the king, and who would they be responsible for when the king died? In addition, no matter how free a liberal nobleman is, he is still a nobleman, and he has a relationship with the king whose blood is thicker than water.At that time, the liberal aristocratic Marquis Lafayette served as the commander-in-chief of the National Guard. He was known as the hero of the two worlds. He helped the American War of Independence and led the revolution in France. The big financial capitalist Bailly served as the mayor.The governing body at that time was the Constituent Assembly at first, and later developed into the Legislative Assembly. When the big bourgeoisie ruled, the Constituent Assembly first issued the August decree, announcing the abolition of the feudal system, and carried out a preliminary transformation of France.But this transformation is far from complete.Then, the Constituent Assembly promulgated the famous "Declaration of Human Rights". The full name of the "Declaration of Human Rights" is "Declaration of Human Rights and Citizenship". It reveals the principles of natural human rights, freedom and equality, negates the feudal hierarchy and the idea of ​​divine right of kings, and becomes an ideological weapon for the bourgeoisie to seize and consolidate political power. The "Declaration of Human Rights" is a programmatic document of the bourgeois revolution. It affirms the political views of the Enlightenment Movement in the form of law, saying that natural human rights, freedom and equality are sacred and inviolable. The "Declaration of Human Rights" completely negates the feudal autocratic monarchy and hierarchy, which is conducive to the progress and development of society.Here is another cliché, capitalist society replaces the inequality of birth with the inequality of property.But property can be obtained through personal struggle, but one's background cannot be changed through struggle. The "Declaration of Human Rights" is not a law, it is just a legal document, it is a piece of paper, not a book, with gold letters on a blue background, very beautiful, with two girls painted on it, the goddess of victory in a white dress with wings, Louvre The headless one in the palace, the one in blue is called Marianne, the national symbol of the French Republic.In terms of its extended meaning, she is also an anthropomorphic expression of freedom and rationality, opposite to the "Gallic Rooster" that represents the French nation and its history, land and culture.Like the national flower and national bird, she is equivalent to a national girl. Then, France convened the Legislative Assembly and promulgated the Constitution, which became the Constitution of 1791, declaring France a constitutional monarchy.Of course, before 1875, the political situation in France was very turbulent, and a constitution was issued in about five years on average.At this time, Prussian and Austrian countries joined forces for armed intervention.Prussia was later Germany, and Austria was also a part of Germany at that time. Why did Prussia and Austria interfere in the French Revolution for no reason?What kind of muscle hurts you when people change their lives?The reason was that they were afraid that the wave of the French Revolution would infect their own country.In case the common people of this country see that the French people are so good that they overthrew the king, what are we doing idle, come on guys.If everyone joins the wave of revolution and the feudal ruling order in Europe is shaken, then there will be big troubles.Therefore, the two countries advocated that the European feudal countries should unite to form an intervention army to interfere with the French revolution, and the situation in France was immediately precarious. The original French army was not incapable of fighting, but at this time, they didn't want to fight anymore.We know that the second estate, the nobility, served the king with the sword.They were unwilling to fight to maintain the democratic system and the constitution, so the French nobles defected and rebelled on the front line.The Secretary of the Navy ordered the entire army to take vacations as soon as the war broke out. When the war broke out, people were lost.The Secretary of State for War defected with the battle plan.The King wrote to his brother-in-law, the Emperor of Austria, encouraging him to march boldly to Paris, accompanied by our men along the way.The frontline was always defeated, and the French people were angry. They formed the Volunteer Army and marched to the front line to resist aggression and defend the motherland. Among them, the Volunteer Army from Marseille wrote a war song, which was later known as "Marseillaise". The people of Paris revolted again and overthrew the rule of the constitutional monarchy, that is, the Faillant faction.After the rule of the constitutional monarchy was overthrown, France began to rule the Girondists.The Girondins represented the interests of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and were representatives of big merchants and industrial and commercial capitalists.During the Girondin period, the state power was transferred from the Legislative Assembly to the National Convention, which was elected by universal suffrage, with one person, one vote.The Girondins completely abolished feudal rule.The vast majority of the French population at that time were farmers.French peasants, like Chinese peasants, need land most. Seeing land is kind, so the result of the revolution is the distribution of public land. At this time, the famous "Valmy Victory" in French history and even European history took place. The French volunteer army led by Dumourier and Kellerman and mainly composed of sans-culottes was in Valmy near Verdun. Once defeated the Prussian army. The "Valmy Victory" repelled the foreign intervention forces and reversed the passive situation of the French army on the battlefield. From then on, the French army began to counterattack across the board. At that time, European wars were called gentlemen's wars. That battle seems very interesting to us today, because the rifles used by the soldiers at that time were smoothbore guns. After leaving, the wind will deviate as soon as it blows. Unlike today's guns with rifling, the bullets are spinning out.Today, if your body is hit by a bullet and has a penetrating wound, that is, if it penetrates you, the bullet must have a small hole at the entrance and a big hole at the exit.At that time, the gun had no bullets, it was projectiles, and the lethality was not that great.The method of operation is to tilt the gun that is nearly one person tall, take out the gunpowder from the gunpowder pouch on the body and pour it in, then fill it with bullets, and then use the stick to poke the porcelain firmly before shooting.The most proficient archer can fire two or three shots a minute, which is not as fast as a bow and arrow, and the accuracy is not good.Therefore, when the two sides shoot, the soldiers are arranged in a neat square formation, with the battalion or company as the unit, and the commander can go to the front and wear a tall feather hat.There were no mobile phones at that time, so in order for the soldiers to see him, he had to wear this kind of hat, hold a saber, and wear white gloves.Behind are the flag bearers and drummers. The flag bearers hold the flag high, the drummers beat the drums, one two one, one two one, everyone walks together, and after walking a hundred or so meters, the team will be neatly organized. The position squirmed.When they are within the range of the muskets of both sides, the soldiers of both sides stand face to face and start shooting. Neither of them should hide, and there is no need to hide. Don't worry, you can't hit you under normal circumstances, basically just practice your courage. Wars in the 18th century were very gentlemen. Before shooting, the two sides gave way to each other. One side said: "Hey, British gentlemen, you shoot first." The other side replied: "Oh, French gentlemen, you shoot first. Let's go." In the end, we may make an appointment to fight together.Why do we need a company or a battalion as a unit to line up in a phalanx and shoot?It is to guarantee the hit rate.Because the hit rate in singles is so bad, you can't hit anyone from 10 meters away, and you almost have to fight face to face. You can only pile up together, and more than a hundred shots are fired, and the opponent dies three times.Don't be afraid, the guns will be inaccurate before the two sides get close, because the cannons at that time didn't have recoil devices, and as soon as the shells were fired, the cannons would disappear.If the phalanx of which side is in chaos, the battle will be lost, because the strength of the individual cannot compete with the collective. Many historical dramas filmed in China are too funny to reflect the war scenes. I don’t know how ancient wars were fought. They had to be fought one by one. How can they be like the ones they filmed? That’s not called fighting, it’s called fighting.A group of people get together, you hug me, I push you, no one can tell who is who.There they marched with drums, Mingjin withdrew their troops, they were all mixed together, how did Mingjin withdraw their troops, once they were collected, all the enemies were taken in.Ancient wars emphasized formations and collectives, not individuals. The Prussian-Austrian Allied Forces used to fight against France because the French didn’t want to fight. Basically, when the Prussian-Austrian Allied Forces fired their guns, the French army’s phalanx disintegrated, causing the Allied Forces to despise the French Army. You guys advocate freedom. Can the army be free? ?Freedom is unorganized, undisciplined.You guys are just a bunch of mobs with no fighting power.The battle of Valmy was still the same this time. The two sides lined up, and the Prussian-Austrian coalition fired.When charging, the officer’s saber was not drawn out of its sheath, and the soldier’s gun was not loaded. Anyway, he was going up to occupy the French army’s position, and the drummer stopped beating. Everyone walked as they liked, sparsely, in twos and threes, just like the parade like.When they came to the front of the French army and entered the range of the rifles, the Prussian-Austrian coalition army was surprised to find that the French did not run away this time. When the French saw the coalition army, they took off their hats, which were painted with the three-color national emblem , throwing it into the sky, shouting: Long live liberty, long live France!Then shoot.For such a long time, throwing the hat, then putting it on, and shooting again, the coalition forces had no time to reload the bullets, and more than 80 people were killed and more than 300 were injured at once. The 150,000 Pu-Austrian coalition forces retreated. This is called Valmy Great victory.The "Great Victory" of defeating 150,000 people, how could one hundred and eighty thousand people have to be wiped out, more than 80 enemies have been wiped out, and more than 300 people have been injured. Is this a big victory?Wars in Europe are particularly fun. Unlike ours in China, in ancient China, wars must annihilate the enemy's vital forces, while European wars do not aim at this. They aim at capturing cities and extorting ransom.Today you beat him away in a hurry, and tomorrow he will organize the team and come to you again. After Valmy's victory, the foreign intervention forces withdrew.Once the intervention forces were withdrawn, the main threat to France was eliminated.So the French National Convention began a trial. After the trial, King Louis XVI was sent to the guillotine.The guillotine was designed by Louis XVI himself. He felt that there were two disadvantages of the executioner's chopping with an axe: one was slow and the other was tiring.Cutting people with an ax is definitely a high-tech job. If the king executes an old minister who can't bear to be executed, the greatest favor he can give him is to find an old executioner. It hurts, my head fell off.If the king hates you very much, find a 17-year-old executioner who has just entered the profession. He chopped off his leg with an ax and his shoulder with another ax. Sorry, it was wrong again.Louis XVI thought it was too inhumane, so he invented a guillotine, lying on the bed, a splint was placed on the neck, a gantry crane was hung on it, and a large guillotine was hung, 0.6 meters wide. The person's head was cut off without any pain.Think about it, a big knife weighing tens of kilograms can cut the head, even if it can't cut it, it will kill it, so the executioner is relieved.This time Louis XVI went up and tried it himself, it was really fast. As soon as the king was killed, the trick was big. Do you dare to kill the king in France?So Britain, Spain, Russia, and Austria formed the first anti-French alliance to fight against injustice.England opposes the French execution of the king, you are so audacious to kill the king.But the British forgot that they executed the king more than a hundred years ago, and they still chopped it with an ax, which was more ruthless than the French.Britain itself is already a capitalist country. Now that France is engaged in a bourgeois revolution, it not only does not support it, but instead restrains it. It is obvious that the intention of the United Kingdom can be seen. If I develop, I don’t want you to develop too.Thus, Britain and France went to war.The formation of the anti-French alliance posed a fatal threat to France. At the same time, the French royal party followed suit and started rioting.You killed our king, the vengeance between the monarch and father was irreconcilable, and the country was in chaos, which caused various social problems, the most serious being the soaring prices. If there is a problem with prices, the country will have a big problem.The so-called emperor does not send hungry soldiers. If you want the common people to follow you to fight, you must first fill his stomach. He can't even eat enough. What do you want to do with you?But the Girondins were most opposed to price controls, because they represented the interests of the industrial and commercial big bourgeoisie, and price increases could not have been better for them.But the people of the republic are living in hunger, and their lives are not guaranteed. The republic is obviously illusory. In this case, the people of Paris held the third uprising, overthrew the Girondins, and established the rule of the Jacobins . The people of Paris like to revolt, as long as they are dissatisfied, they will revolt, pushing the revolution to a climax again and again.Because of the old uprising in Paris, in the past when we Chinese, especially official people, visited France, our favorite thing to say was, I know that the people of Paris are people with a rich revolutionary tradition.In fact, people in Paris are the most taboo to say this. They think that we have forgotten what we did when we were immature and ignorant. Why do you keep remembering these things in China? After the Girondists were overthrown, the Jacobins came to power.The Jacobins represented the interests of the petty and middle bourgeoisie. After coming to power, they took a series of measures to consolidate the revolutionary regime.The first measure was to distribute land to farmers. The farmers saw it well and raised their hands in favor.At the beginning, the Girondins also distributed land, but it was the public land in the countryside. The Jacobins confiscated all the land of the nobles and distributed it to the peasants. Of course, this distribution was a redemption, not a free one.The Jacobin government provided farmers with loans to buy land, thus gaining the support of farmers.The second measure is the price limit decree, which limits prices.The Girondins were eliminated because they opposed the price limit, so the Jacobins agreed to limit prices.The third measure is to punish the suspects.The fourth is to issue a general mobilization order, calling on the French people to join the army and defend the motherland.Conscripted 420,000 troops, repelled foreign armed intervention. In fact, these measures should be extraordinary measures in extraordinary times. If they were adopted in peacetime, something might happen. However, Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobin faction, was obsessed with violence and felt that managing the country in this way was the most effective.Robespierre was a lawyer, and it is said that he borrowed all his travel expenses to attend the three-level meeting. This kind of person is often the most harmful to society, because he is underappreciated.Look at the thief stealing the guardrail of the park and making a manhole cover. This is harmful to society, but it is not that big, because he can’t do big things. He will never think that one day I will stop stealing and I will overthrow the government.People like Robespierre are the most frightening. There is also Hitler, a small and medium-sized intellectual and a middle-class origin. He is dissatisfied with his own situation and hates society. Shake three times.Very few well-educated people from wealthy classes engage in dictatorship and purge after taking power.People who are used to seeing money don’t take money as money. Why do corrupt officials basically come from hard backgrounds?It’s not easy to have today, when not to fish now?Robespierre believes that violence to conquer the world and rule the country with violence is the most effective method. Among the four measures, restricting prices is the most unusable in normal times. This measure is obviously the least suitable for the development of productive forces.I make a piece of bread, the cost is three yuan, and I sell it for five yuan. Now the government asks me to sell it for seventy cents, and if I sell it for eighty cents, I will be arrested. I will pay two yuan and three for one piece of bread, and two yuan and three yuan for another one. I will still close the business Well, whoever likes to do it.Therefore, restricting prices is the last thing to do.Of course, punishing the suspect is also useless. If you suspect that he is an enemy of the Republic, let him go to the guillotine. Is this appropriate?Obviously not suitable! Whether it is the "Declaration of Human Rights" or the Constitution, it is stated in it that people's private property is sacred and inviolable.Since property is inviolable, can life be taken away at will?If you say he is an enemy of the Republic, he will go to the guillotine. Even if he is an enemy of the Republic, should he die?His curse should be different from the crime of throwing a bomb. But Robespierre didn't care about this. He suspected that you were an enemy of the Republic, so you had to go to the guillotine. In the end, even Robespierre's personal enemies were all sent to the guillotine.When he was a lawyer, he lost the lawsuit and you won, all right, the enemy of the Republic, go to the guillotine!Anyone who has defeated me will go to the guillotine.He chased a girl and failed to catch up, and then he sent the girl's husband's family to the guillotine, and let the girl watch from below, you regret it, how good I am!So the guillotine at that time was the busiest machine in France.The year of Robespierre’s terrorist dictatorship was the most terrifying year in France. According to the statistics of the number of people killed in this year, some say 5,000, some say 40,000, and some say 60,000.The French thinker Madame Roland once said, "Liberty, liberty, how many crimes are committed in your name." The revolutionary trend starts, and the masses are out of control when they are incited. After you have incited the masses, you want them to calm down Come down, it's hard to do.This kind of terrorist dictatorship is obviously impossible to last for a long time, otherwise France will be over, so under such circumstances, the Thermidor coup broke out in 1794.After the Thermidor coup, the rule of the Jacobins was overthrown, and Robespierre went to the guillotine.The French are very humorous, and engraved this line of text on the Robespierre monument: I, Robespierre, sleep here, passers-by, please don’t mourn for me, if I live, none of you will think about it live. The Thermidor coup ended the Jacobin Terrorist Reign.The Jacobin dictatorship has gone too far. Should this be the task of the bourgeois revolution?Restricting prices, this is not a bourgeois revolution, it has become a planned economy, and it has been played.After playing this game, you have to come back and return to the normal track that the revolution should develop. Therefore, another party emerged—the Thermidor Party, which still represents the interests of the big bourgeoisie. Went around and went back.The early bourgeois revolution should be led by the big bourgeoisie because it has the strongest economic strength and the most mature politically.The Thermidorians set up a government to correct some radical behaviors and measures of the Jacobins, while maintaining the achievements of the bourgeois revolution.However, the Directory government was weak and incompetent, and it was unable to solve the rebellion of the royal party within.The government has five governors, the highest is the banker Barras, until the Brumaire coup in 1799, he was taken down.As soon as Ballas was taken down, the Directory ended, and Napoleon, who overthrew Ballas, established the Consulate. Napoleon is a famous French national hero. Almost all places in France sell all kinds of Napoleon statues, including copper, clay, iron, tin, aluminum, plastic, all kinds of materials, and some Printed on mugs, T-shirts, and hung on shop windows, anyway, Napoleon is the most "photographed". Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica.It turns out that Corsica is a province of the Republic of Genoa in Italy. In 1768, the defeated Genoese sold their rights in Corsica to the French, and the French army entered the island in large numbers, so the island belonged to France.The islanders spoke Italian, and Napoleon's mother tongue was Italian, so Napoleon was not really a Frenchman.After Corsica belonged to France, Napoleon went to a French school to study. Because of his short stature, he was always bullied by his classmates.It is said that the grown-up Napoleon was only about 1.6 meters tall. Among the adult males of the yellow race today, it is difficult to find a wife. Among the white people, he is almost equivalent to a dwarf.Southern Europe is better. If you go to Western Europe and Nordic countries, the average height is 1.83 meters. Basically, a boy can be over 1.9 meters, and a girl can be over 1.7 meters. There are no particularly short people.That's why people in Western and Northern Europe look down on Southern and Eastern Europeans. You are not as good-looking or tall as we are, not to mention you are poor. When Napoleon was young, his classmates always bullied him. He resisted fiercely. Every time he fought with his classmates, he was actually beaten, but Napoleon refused to admit defeat. If you hit me once, I will pay you back once. If you hit me twice, I will pay you back twice. , frequently take the initiative to attack.Later, the classmates got annoyed, saying that you Napoleon can't beat me every time, and you don't usually practice, you just learn sunflower acupuncture or something.Napoleon said firmly, I will beat you one day, so don't run away.The buddy was convinced and said that you are really good.In the past, when the little hooligans in Beijing met, they would not go up and stab someone with a knife. They would slash their thighs with a big salt particle, and the other party would be convinced.If you are not afraid of this, then use a red-hot soldering iron and do it yourself. Hooligans do this.Now hooligans can't do it. They run away after burning people, and tear up the tickets after they get the ransom. There is no "professional ethics".Foreign hooligans also have professional ethics, and they generally don't tear up their tickets when they get the ransom, so as to ensure the safety of the hostages.Napoleon fought and became famous, and he entered the military academy.After entering the military academy, he did not forget to maintain the glorious tradition, continue to play, and hit a new level.But Napoleon did not fall behind in his studies, and his grades were particularly good, especially in mathematics and history.Therefore, he has the meticulous mind of a commander and the great talent for governing the country. To be honest, the subject of history is mainly useful for big figures.After the little people learn it, they can understand the introduction when they go on a trip; they can talk to people about which Kung Pao chicken was invented when they are eating; at least they can tell which dynasty it is when watching TV dramas.But it will be of great use for great people to learn, and learn the lessons of the rise and fall of the chaos of the past dynasties. Napoleon graduated from the military academy at the age of 16 and was awarded the title of Second Lieutenant of Artillery. He trained himself in the war. By the time the Great Revolution broke out, he had been promoted to captain and joined the revolutionary camp.Napoleon came to prominence at the Battle of Toulon, where he defeated the First Coalition against France.He flexibly used artillery to repel the British warships in the port of Toulon and defeated the royalists. Napoleon, who was only 24 years old, was promoted from an artillery captain to a brigadier general, becoming the youngest general since the birth of the modern military rank system. The school officer didn't work for a day, and he jumped from the captain to the brigadier general directly across the junior, middle and colonel!Unexpectedly, at the age of 25, General Napoleon retired with honor. Why?The Thermidor coup broke out, and it was Robespierre's younger brother, Robespierre Jr., who appreciated Napoleon.When Robespierre Jr. went to the guillotine, Napoleon followed suit and was considered to be in the same party as Robespierre Jr.He was expelled from the military and spent more than 100 days in prison. He wrote letters to appeal before he was released.After he was released, he was allowed to retire. Napoleon wore a worn gray military overcoat all day long, wandering pitifully by the Seine, thinking about the future of France.Others wear the coat to the knees, but he wears it to the top of the feet. 第二年，王党在巴黎发动叛乱，两万四千多名叛乱分子进攻督政府，督政府的卫队不到六千，巴拉斯找谁谁不理、叫谁谁不应，怎么办？关键时刻扒拉不到人啊，巴拉斯彻底晕菜了，准备放弃巴黎逃跑。这时候有人提建议，说咱们还有一个退休“老将”拿破仑呢，要不把他招回来试试？巴拉斯一听，死马当活马医吧，就把拿破仑招来了。拿破仑一来，从仓库里拖出50门大炮，对着叛乱分子就轰，一下就把叛乱分子打败了。叛乱分子琢磨这哥们儿怎么这么愣啊，在城市里面动用大炮，这可是大姑娘上花轿头一回啊。巷战开炮，不管三七二十一，轰，叛乱马上平定，巴拉斯立刻让拿破仑重新回来服役，当时他只有26岁，晋升为少将。 第二次反法同盟组成后，英国唆使奥地利经过意大利进攻法国。当时拿破仑就向督政府建议，主动出兵，在意大利迎接奥军，喜酒在自己院里喝，仗在别人院里打。督政府觉得主意不错，可是咱没兵啊，拿什么应战？拿破仑马上接茬儿说自己听过一支莱茵军团整天闲着没事儿干，不用白不用，督政府一听，不错，你用吧。拿破仑到了那儿一看，三万八千多人，衣衫褴褛，面黄肌瘦，除了60的就是16的，脑袋上没头盔，脚底下没鞋，枪不是没刺刀就是缺弹药。拿破仑毫不气馁，搬过来一个弹药箱站上边演讲，要不然人家看不见他。想为祖国赢得荣誉吗？想改善饮食吗？想穿新军装吗？想发财吗？我带你们到意大利去。士兵们就被拿破仑煽惑起来了，在这儿几个月没发饷了，待这儿不得饿死啊，走，跟着拿破仑玩儿命去。 拿破仑领着这支军队进攻意大利，欧洲的报纸上出现一幅漫画，一个大脑袋小身子男人领着一帮叫花子进攻意大利。结果拿破仑出人意料地翻越了欧洲第一高山——阿尔卑斯山，能做到这一点的除了拿破仑，只有古代迦太基的名将汉尼拔。拿破仑在翻越阿尔卑斯山顶峰的时候，感叹道：“阿尔卑斯山，我比你高一米六二。”山临绝顶我为峰，意气雄豪，一下出现在奥地利军队的背后，打了奥军一个措手不及。奥地利70多岁的老将被迫缴械投降。拿破仑声名鹊起，成为欧洲第一名将，当时他才27岁。 晋升中将的拿破仑，建议督政府远征埃及，督政府批准了。在金字塔下，法军打败埃及马穆鲁克骑兵，整个埃及几乎都被法国征服了。于是，英国又组织了反法同盟，这时拿破仑扔下部队回到了法国，回国后就策动了雾月政变。督政府被推翻，拿破仑建立了执政府，他本人是法兰西第一执政（1799年—1804年）。后来，被选举为法兰西共和国的终身执政，所谓终身执政，就是不死不算，这一年他29岁。但是，拿破仑觉得做法兰西共和国的终身执政不过瘾，于是在1804年把法国由共和国改成了帝国，这就是历史上着名的法兰西第一帝国。 建立法兰西第一帝国后，拿破仑采取了一系列内外政策来巩固统治。第一，在政治上建立中央集权的体制。中央各部部长完全听命于拿破仑，全国88个郡的郡守由他任命，取消了地方自治机构，地方必须绝对服从中央。拿破仑对当时的民主派力量采取高压政策，剥夺人民民主，同时对王党势力也坚决镇压。第二，为解决财政危机，进行财政改革，由中央统一管理税收。创立法兰西银行，实行重商主义政策，增加出口，保护关税。第三，发展资本主义工商业，支持海外贸易。第四，颁布民法典，这件事儿确实永载史册。拿破仑晚年战败，被英国人流放到了圣赫勒拿岛，在这个岛上待了6年去世。临终前回忆自己的一生时，他说我一生的光荣，并不是打了40场胜仗（拿破仑一生经历了52次大小战役，他赢了40场，占80%），滑铁卢一仗的失败，抹去了这一切光辉的痕迹，但有一样东西是永垂不朽的，它将永远被后人记住，这就是我的法典。第五，在教育上，拿破仑创办了法兰西大学和公立的中学。拿破仑的对内措施完全都是促进法国发展的。 拿破仑为什么这么自信？这部法典为什么会永垂不朽？原因是这部法典确立了资本主义国家立法的规范。这部法典的起源可以追溯到《罗马法》、东罗马帝国的《查士丁尼法典》。前文曾说过，英国的《权利法案》，法国的1791年宪法，都是国家的根本大法，它并不解决民事问题。比如做买卖被骗了，怎么跟人要钱讨债？跟妻子离婚，财产怎么分割？被人打瞎一只眼，怎么要求赔偿？这些东西宪法可不管，这是商法、民法、刑法的范畴，而这些法都是拿破仑最早制定的。 封建时代的法律，出发点就是人与人的不平等。举个例子，比如说有一个学生到衙门告我，说老师借着上我们家家访的机会，把我们家的电视机抱走了，所有人都可以作证，就是老师干的。好，你到衙门告我，状子递上去了，首先打你40大棍，为什么？因为你以下犯上，你敢告老师。然后开始查，那电视机是你抱走的吗？我说是我，还给人家，我还给你就完了，你挨了40棍子。如果一查没这回事儿，不是我抱走的，你家保姆抱走的，你竟敢诬告老师，那么等待你的下场可能就是凌迟处死。 天地君亲师——天、地、皇上、父母、老师，得罪了都是大逆不道，都将凌迟处死，所以不能得罪老师。老师偷了电视机就等于送他了，上你家吃饭是看得起你，跟你要钱是不见外。要是搁今天，法律面前人人平等，老师偷了你们家电视机可能就罪加一等，你还为人师表呢？上学生家把电视机抱走了，你也不嫌沉。搁在大清，你要是想告我，你就先得掂量掂量值不值，为这一破电视，你跟床上躺仨月。不值，算了，我认了，老师抱走当我孝敬了，他没让我买个新的就不错了。 拿破仑帝国与反法联盟多次战争，一再打败奥、普、俄、西等国。英国打不了，因为英国有海军，有海峡天险。1805年拿破仑派出法国跟西班牙的联合舰队想征服英国，结果在特拉法尔加角，被英国的民族英雄、独臂独眼的纳尔逊海军上将打得全军覆没。但是纳尔逊上将打败了拿破仑的联合舰队之后，在战斗即将结束的那一刻，被一名法军狙击手击中，临终之际，听到他的副手向他报告，说法国舰队已经投降了，纳尔逊才闭上了双眼。军人最理想的死法，就是在战争的最后时刻，被最后一颗子弹击中。纳尔逊上将，12岁参加海军，有34年的海上作战经历，死的时候46岁。今天伦敦的特拉法尔加广场，又叫胜利广场，正中有一根柱子，上边立着一位独臂独眼的海军上将，那就是纳尔逊子爵。拿破仑干不过英国，打别的国家就都没意义了，因为英国是资本主义国家里最强大的，一再联合别的国家组织反法同盟，前后七次，拿破仑打败了前五次，后两次没练过。 拿破仑在英国还没被征服的时候犯了两个大错误：入侵西班牙和远征俄国，这两步走得是元气大伤。西班牙拖住了30万法军精锐，在西班牙还没被解决的情况下，他又远征俄国。俄国哪儿能打啊？人家就一个字儿对付，跑。拿破仑时代法国不到3000万人口，俄国7000万人，你杀点儿算什么，跑！拖到冬天，活活冻死你，然后俄军反攻。拿破仑进攻俄国是60万大军，最后生还的不到两万人，基本上全军覆没了。 法兰西帝国极盛的时候，拿破仑是法兰西皇帝兼意大利国王兼莱茵同盟保护人兼华沙大公国大公，他一个人就统治了法国、德意志、意大利和波兰。他的哥哥约瑟夫是西班牙国王，弟弟路易是荷兰国王，妹妹是托斯卡纳大公，妹夫是那不勒斯国王，几乎是他们家统治了整个欧洲，如果拿破仑不失败的话，欧盟早就实现了，都是拿破仑家族。现在你到这些国家参观，关于拿破仑的痕迹特别多，欧洲几乎就没有拿破仑没去过的地方。到了1813年莱比锡之战，欧洲的民族主义萌发。拿破仑战败，功亏一篑。 当时拿破仑打败仗的一个重要原因，就缘于他的情敌兼政敌贝尔纳多特。这个人原来是拿破仑手下的元帅，后来瑞典国王没有孩子，就把贝尔纳多特接到瑞典做王储，也就是后来瑞典卡尔十四世国王，他跟拿破仑的关系很微妙。拿破仑原来没混出来的时候，跟一个叫德茜蕾的女孩儿订婚，混出来之后就做陈世美了，娶了一个比他大6岁的有钱寡妇，就是约瑟芬。约瑟芬的丈夫是侯爵，在大革命期间上了断头台，拿破仑为了尽早打入上流社会，就傍上约瑟芬了。德茜蕾听说之后，就来巴黎找拿破仑。他们家正开舞会，其实是约瑟芬家，门房不让进，这时候正好遇见贝尔纳多特将军一个人来赴宴，德茜蕾问你能把我带进去吗？贝尔纳多特就把她带进去了。进去之后，德茜蕾看见拿破仑很生气，指责拿破仑忘恩负义，你小子没好下场，泼了一杯酒。贝尔纳多特一看，这丫头有性格，挺好，他俩就结婚了。 拿破仑跟约瑟芬一结婚，就发现约瑟芬这人实在是不怎么样，水性杨花，经常红杏出墙，就很怀念德茜蕾，老去纠缠人家。人家已是有夫之妇，你老纠缠人家算怎么回事儿呀。可以想象，贝尔纳多特有多恨拿破仑。还有一个原因，贝尔纳多特极力主张共和，反对君主制，虽然他本人后来成了瑞典国王，但是他反对法国的君主制，所以拿破仑虽然封他为元帅、公爵，但是他对拿破仑很不感冒。1810年他到了瑞典，毫不犹豫就把瑞典拉入到反法联盟的阵营中，他告诉反法联盟军队的指挥官，不要跟皇帝本人指挥的军队打仗，去打他手下那些有勇无谋的元帅们。拿破仑手下的元帅四肢发达，头脑简单，皇帝不需要他们的大脑，皇帝替他们思考，他们照做就可以了。于是联军派出骑兵，专门截杀法军的信使，让这些元帅得不到皇帝的任何命令。在战场上，拿破仑手下的好多元帅被迫投降了。羽翼一被剪除，光剩主干就没戏唱了。 1813年莱比锡之战，拿破仑战败，于1814年退位。法国的波旁王朝宣布复辟。波旁王朝复辟之后，拿破仑也玩儿越狱，一度短暂地从被看管的地中海厄尔巴岛逃出，领了1000多人在法国南部登陆，路易十八国王就派军队镇压。拿破仑手下看这阵势很害怕，人家来了好几个团，我们就1000多人，打起来咱不完蛋了？镇静的拿破仑看了一眼部队的旗帜，就跟他的副官们说，别害怕，我去。他把帽子一摘，把胸膛露出来，士兵们，向你们的皇帝开枪吧。就看来镇压他的士兵们疯了似的，冲向拿破仑，把他抱起来往天上扔，皇帝万岁，亲爱的皇帝，你可把我们想死了。 拿破仑一路被抬着，回到了巴黎。出发的时候1000多人，到巴黎时15万大军，整师整团的人倒向拿破仑。拿破仑得意扬扬地给路易十八写了一封信：国王啊，我亲爱的兄弟，不要再派人来了，我这儿人已经够多了。就这样，拿破仑复辟了，他一复辟，第七次反法同盟组成。滑铁卢一战，拿破仑又一次失败，拿破仑的这次复辟只有100多天，所以叫“百日皇朝”。拿破仑被流放到了距离法国7000公里的遥远的非洲，大西洋上的圣赫勒拿岛。1821年5月5日，拿破仑在岛上去世，在礼炮声中这位征服者被葬在圣赫勒拿岛上的托贝特山泉旁。直至今日，拿破仑的死因还是众说纷纭，大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国医生的验尸报告显示他是死于严重胃溃疡，但新的研究认为拿破仑死于砷中毒，而且从当年贵族爱用的墙纸上，历史学家亦发现含有砷的矿物质。 1840年，法国的“七月王朝”把拿破仑的遗体从这个岛迎请回来，在波光粼粼的巴黎塞纳河南岸，有一座高大圆屋顶的古老建筑，这就是游客必到的荣军院。拿破仑的灵柩就安葬在那里。那个大教堂在巴黎市的任何一个角度都能看到，因为它的顶是镀金的。今天里边已经没有神像了，完全变成了拿破仑的纪念馆，后边就是军事博物馆。拿破仑的棺椁是7层，跟咱中国一样，天子七椁。最外边是红色大理石的棺椁，周围12根柱子，是12尊胜利女神像。地上用马赛克镶嵌着很多地名，就是他打那些个胜仗的地方，不过滑铁卢肯定没有。 虽然波旁王朝复辟，但并不标志着革命的结束，一直到了1830年，代表大资产阶级的君主立宪的“七月王朝”建立，这才标志着法国革命的最后结束。