Chapter 6 Milan Christ 387 AD

Next to the Colosseum, stands the most famous Arc de Triomphe.This is the largest, most magnificent and best-preserved triumphal arch in Rome - the Arch of Constantine.The Arc de Triomphe of Constantine is 21 meters high and 25 meters wide. The reliefs are engraved with the achievements of many Roman emperors. Although this is the product of the decline of Roman architectural art, many of the decorations and reliefs were directly taken from other buildings. It does not prevent its magnificent shape from becoming an outstanding representative of the Arc de Triomphe art. The most magnificent moment of anything is often the moment before its demise, and the Arc de Triomphe is no exception.Emperor Constantine was Rome's last hero.When we pass him, we go to the end of Rome.

This time the story begins with Constantine.Constantine was different from his predecessors. His main achievement was not external, but defeating his domestic opponents and unifying the country.Before him, the Roman Empire was already crumbling under the double attack of internal ossification and external attack.Constantine reunited the divided eastern and western empires, established a new capital, and brought back the afterglow of the empire that had entered the doomsday.This unification lasted for 83 years, which is not short in terms of time. However, unlike the once stable empire, this entire century was spent in the struggle for the throne and the hard support of fighting against barbarian invasions. The empire declined. is inevitable.

Perhaps most importantly for all of European history, Constantine converted to Christianity.No one would underestimate the far-reaching impact of this incident. According to legend, Constantine converted to Christ in a dream.Constantine was in the midst of a civil war for power.Before him, Rome was divided into two empires, east and west. His father was the adjutant of Emperor Diocletian, the emperor of the Western Roman Empire at that time. In 305 AD, Diocletian abdicated, and Constantine's father became monarch. , his father died, and Constantine ascended the throne.This caused resistance from many of the top generals of the empire, and a civil war broke out. Constantine confronted his opponent head-on, but he did not have the upper hand in the situation.

In 312, Constantine and his rival Marcusentius fought a decisive battle at the Milvian Bridge. The situation of the decisive battle was critical. On the eve of the decisive battle, Constantine lingered by the bridge for a long time. There is a sun flag with a fiery cross, seeing the army under the cross, and hearing a voice saying that as long as he converts to Christ, he can win. The next day, Constantine won.The following year, he issued the famous "Edict of Milan", which stopped the empire's centuries-long persecution of Christians. The Edict of Milan begins as follows: "There is peace in and around Milan, and we are diligently seeking the way to achieve the common good and peace. Among the many ways that can benefit the majority of the people, we think that the first thing to do is to adjust the respect for the worship of God. In this way, Christians and other believers are given the right to freedom of belief. Therefore, the gods in the sky may be comforted, and thus bless us and those who live under our protection."

This is the faint thunder that caused the changes of the millennium. In Milan, on the bronze doors of the cathedral, we can see the story of Constantine's life and achievements, including the "Edict of Milan" inscribed in Latin.The story of Constantine's great victory has become a mythical legend. Some say he saw a cross in the air while walking, some say he dreamed of a cross, and others say that he made an alliance with Christians for political purposes. With such a set of legendary stories, these are not important, what is important is that he won the victory at that time, and in return, he gave Christians the long-awaited freedom.This is a memorable event not only for Milan and the Roman Empire, but even for mankind.

At the end of his life, Constantine was baptized and became the first Christian emperor.No one knows whether Constantine believed in Christianity. Some Christian defenders and historians believe that Constantine is just a politician who knows the current affairs and a religious skeptic. Not only does he not believe in Christianity, but he is completely deist believers.Some details have a suggestive character, when Constantine entered Rome, holding a crucifix, he also received a divine statue from the pagans.This is unacceptable to Christians. Regardless of the facts, after Constantine, the Christian Church jumped from a persecuted minority organization to the supreme group, and even the largest organization in the Roman Empire.

Milan is at the heart of the vortex.It became the capital of the Empire in its final days, and Theodosius the Great, after Constantine, spent the last days of Roman unity here.Milan is not the place where Christianity was born, nor is it the place where Christianity first spread, but it is the place where Christianity began to flourish. In 392, Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the state religion.From then on, not only the emperor converted to Christ, but the whole of Europe converted to Christ. Emperor Theodosius was the first believer to use power. He reversed the practice of the previous emperor and began to persecute the pagans. It was also a massacre, and the target was changed from Christians to Christian opponents.This result has two effects.On the one hand, the empire has bowed its head to the church, and on the other hand, the church has bowed its head to the imperial government.Christians were recognized, and theology received an unprecedented historical status.On the other hand, the church was attached to the government, and thus developed and spread under the aegis of power, which made the late church completely different from the early ones, and became power for power, paving the way for a tragedy deep in history.

Milan thus became the capital of religion and a turning point in history.There are two main lines in the history of Europe, one is the ancient civilization represented by the Greco-Roman tradition, and the other is the medieval civilization represented by Judeo-Christianity, and at this moment it has reached an alternate fork. Today, even when Gucci and Lamborghini have become the symbols of Milan fashion, the deepest Catholic culture can still be felt in Milan.The architecture of Milan's churches and monasteries is rich and beautiful.The Milan Cathedral is one of the most beautiful cathedrals in the world. It was built in 1386 and completed in 1897. It took five centuries and many generations of continuous efforts to finally achieve perfection. Today it is the third cathedral in Europe. Napoleon was crowned here.The Milan Cathedral is traditional and sacred, and it still retains the habit of religious piousness. No visitor can expose too much skin.The cathedral is also a classroom. Walking around the exterior wall of Milan Cathedral, we can learn all kinds of knowledge about Catholicism.One bronze door depicts the story of the birth of the Virgin Mary and Jesus, and the other depicts the story of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection.In the small reliefs arranged in the middle of the front wall, we can clearly see Adam and Eve being expelled from the Garden of Eden, God testing Abraham to let him kill his son Isaac, and seeing the young King David killing the giant Goliath , to see God apparition to Moses to inform the oracle.If you have a good eye, you can also recognize many sacred stories on the stained glass inside the church.The stained glass has a history of 500 years, revealing a touching brilliance in the sun.

The sculptures of the cathedral are breathtaking.On the outer wall and the top spire, there are at least 280 life-size sculptures with exquisite skills, and it is extremely shocking to look up, making people amazed at how they stand on the tip of a needle.Each sculpture is lifelike, with different appearances and expressions, either quiet or ferocious, in the sky, under the clouds and in the sun, full of emotions, overlooking the world. Christianity was born from the history of the Jews, but gradually separated from the Jews after its birth.In a way, Christ's influence was carried on not by himself, but by successive thinkers after his death.

The "Old Testament" in the "Bible" is the history of the Jewish people. The "Old Testament" begins with God's creation, writes about the birth of mankind, and then writes about the fate of each generation of Adam's descendants.From the exile and return around 1000 BC until the Jews were captured as slaves by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC.During the captivity in Babylon, the Jews began to look back and reflect on the history of their own nation, and the "Old Testament" was written by the priests of the nation during these years of captivity.They wrote about God's favor and punishment for them, about the law covenant between God and their leader Moses, about God's selection of them and their fate in the end of the future.In the course of these writings, the Jew gains a sense of self.

From the perspective of world history, the Jews are a weak nation full of disasters. They were once imprisoned in Africa by the Egyptians, and they returned to Jerusalem after going through untold hardships.In such a crisis of extinction, the history and beliefs of the nation become the reliance of survival.There were several wise kings who brought hope to the nation. In the Old Testament, they are Abraham, Moses, David and Solomon.Abraham was the leader of the nation after the great flood. After being tested by God Jehovah, he was considered devout enough, so he was given as God's agent to lead the Jews to settle in Canaan.Moses was the hero who led the Jews out of Egypt after the Jews were taken captive by the Egyptians. He was oracle-written the law of the Ten Commandments of God.David was the greatest pride in the golden age of the Jews. He led the Jews to capture Jerusalem, built it as the capital of Israel, and moved the Ark of the Covenant, the symbol of God.Solomon was a wise and sage king after David. He expanded his territory with martial arts, established administrative regions, made the country prosperous, and wrote the Psalms and Psalms in the Old Testament.This is the only happy memory of the Jews.Except for these wise kings, the history of the Jewish people is mostly a memory of suffering.After the death of King Solomon, the kingdom was divided, and then it was destroyed and plundered. The Old Testament writes it all down, and writes down hope for the future.The Jews wait for the Messiah, which in Hebrew means the anointed, that is, the king.According to their agreement with God, their piety will be exchanged for the arrival of God's Savior.A nation must find a way to explain its suffering, and the choice of the Jewish nation is the future that awaits.This kind of waiting is the core of the years, giving the Jewish nation a unique way of looking at history and the patience to endure all suffering.If one does not understand this waiting, one cannot understand the deep meaning of bitterness in the 20th century drama "Waiting for Godot". The "Old Testament" is the common Bible of Judaism and Christianity, while the "New Testament" is exclusive to Christianity. The difference between the New Testament and the Old Testament is that the New Testament tells not the teachings of God himself, but the teachings of the Son of God.Christians believe that the Messiah God promised to the Jews has already come, Jesus, the son of a carpenter, although Judaism itself does not believe so. The New Testament believes that Jesus is the Son of God. His coming is the salvation of mankind, and his death is a sacrifice of his own flesh and blood to wash away the sins of mankind.Christ is the Savior, derived from Greek, and is equivalent to Messiah in Hebrew. According to the Gospels of the New Testament, Jesus was born in a Jewish family in Nazareth. Mary, the mother of Jesus, was conceived as a virgin. God sent the archangel Gabriel to tell her that she would be blessed by God to have a son named Jesus.According to the definition of AD, Jesus was born in the first year of AD. However, according to modern research, Jesus was born around 4 BC, because the Bible records that King Herod slaughtered babies at that time, but King Herod died in 4 BC. died.According to the Gospel, it was precisely because of the birth of Jesus that the stars appeared in the sky, so that three learned doctors from the East came to Nazareth to find the king shown by the sky.King Herod panicked and ordered all the babies to be killed, so Jesus' parents fled to Egypt with him.After returning to his hometown, Jesus grew up to be 30 years old and was baptized in the river. The Holy Spirit descended on him, and a voice said from heaven, "You are my beloved Son, and I am pleased with you."From then on, he preached as the Son of God until his death at the age of 33.Jesus’ words are unique. He opposes sticking to the law, insists on God himself, and forgives the so-called sinners. It is contrary to the traditional concept of Judaism and is resented by the Jewish elders. Jesus had many disciples during his lifetime, and he chose twelve of them as apostles, including fishermen, tax collectors and Jesus' brothers.These twelve followed Jesus until his death.Why these twelve and not others, the complete answer is not given in the bible, the Gospels only write about the process of calling, for example, Jesus went to the seashore and saw two brothers, Simon and Andrew casting a net in the sea, They were originally fishermen, and Jesus said to them: Come, follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.Immediately they left their nets and followed him.These twelve people are the witnesses of Jesus' deeds and sayings. Jesus told them parables, showed the image of God to three of them, and brought them to Gethsemane, where they prayed last, before dying. Jesus was betrayed by Judas, one of the twelve disciples.According to the Bible, what Jesus did annoyed the Jewish priests, and his statement that he called himself the Son of God was also considered blasphemy. The priest hoped to execute him, so he offered a high reward for the information about Jesus, and Judas betrayed Jesus for silver coins.Jesus seems to have foreseen this when, on Passover Eve, he dined with his disciples.According to the custom, the Jews will prepare a rich feast during the Passover, slaughter a lamb, and sacrifice to God.At the last supper, he predicted to everyone that he would be betrayed, and let everyone guess who it was.He also foresaw that another disciple, Peter, would refuse to recognize him three times because of fear after he was arrested. After the prophecy was fulfilled, Peter shed tears. The Last Supper is probably the most famous meal in the world, and the scene during the feast can be seen in Leonardo da Vinci's famous fresco, The Last Supper, painted in the Abbey of Santa Maria delle Graci in Milan The walls, although faded, can still be seen in a large number of beautiful and rich details. "The Last Supper" is a painting with movement in stillness.The composition of the picture has complex and profound meanings, and the style of writing is profound and delicate.The most prominent compositional feature is the use of perspective. The perspective focus of the two walls is the distant horizon, which happens to converge on the top of Jesus' head to form the center of sight.The arch over the rear window is like a halo over Jesus' head.Each of the twelve disciples formed a group of three and lined up on both sides of Jesus. Each of them had different expressions, such as panic, suspicion, fear, and justification. The color and skin color can correspond to the twelve disciples one by one, and everyone is very real.And the most important thing is that Jesus' face is full of sorrow, with a detached tranquility, while Judas' body recedes, the face is the only one in the darkness among all the people, forming a sharp contrast with Jesus.Da Vinci once described in his notes that he designed each person, from clothes to expressions and hand movements, each one is completely different and extremely delicate. The Gospels were written by the four descendants of Jesus - Matthew, Luke, Mark and John - 60 to 100 years after Jesus' death. They are named after them respectively and describe the birth, words and deeds of Jesus. , Conviction and death.The origins of these four authors are not completely clear, but it is generally believed that the "Gospel of Mark" is the earliest one, and Mark was a student of Jesus' disciple Peter, so it can be regarded as first-hand information.Although this statement is denied by some modern scholars, who believe that Mark was a Roman who did not understand Palestine, there are also some places in the scriptures that indicate that Mark was at least close to Peter.Much of the content of the two Gospels, Matthew and Luke, is derived from the Gospel of Mark.Because these "Gospels" were completed several years after Jesus' death, they only rely on handing down as blueprints, and lack the confirmation of other independent historical records, so some modern people question the authenticity of Jesus, not only denying that Jesus is the Son of God, And deny that Jesus ever existed.A more general attitude is to believe that although the miracles of Jesus were not real, as a prophetic and great philosopher, he not only really existed, but also really influenced the times. Jesus did not cause much of a stir during his lifetime.Although his words and deeds have aroused the vigilance of those in power, they are not considered all-powerful.The crime that led to his death was only to cause chaos in the temple in Jerusalem at Passover, and his influence was not very great compared with the Jewish leaders who led a large-scale rebellion at the same time.At that time, there were many rebellious Jewish leaders, and there were many famous ones, such as the famous rebel leader Bar Kekeba in the Second Jewish War. Compared with their achievements, the deeds of Jesus were not outstanding, but the descendants of Jesus Followers are more than those influential figures.Why is that? Milan is an important place. Milan is a place where Christianity flourishes.The reason why I say this is that apart from the two major events of the "Edict of Milan" and the official revision of the state religion, there are two other people who are crucial.One was Archbishop Ambrose of Milan, and the other was St. Augustine, a Christian theologian.The two of them and Jerome, the translator of the Bible in Constantinople, are also known as the Three Magi of Christianity. In any era, there is no lack of big figures with huge followers, and there are also national leaders who claim to have oracles themselves. However, there are only a few people whose influence can span more than a century in history.Change and theoretical expansion were crucial as Christianity grew from a small sect based on charisma and discipleship to a far-reaching doctrine.Just as the disciples of Confucius recorded his words, and later Confucians expanded the theories, so the Christian system also consists of the words recorded by the disciples and the theories expanded by the philosophers of later generations, especially the latter. Without these, there would be no development of Christianity .Paul of Rome and Augustine of Milan were the earliest pioneers. Judging from some words and phrases of Jesus, he predicted that the apocalypse and judgment of God will come soon, and the world will be in chaos at that time, and the appearance of God will give believers a fair and eternal life.Jesus predicted that a new kingdom would be established in the world, the twelve disciples would have the authority to rule the twelve kingdoms, and the final judgment would punish ungodliness and injustice.Such prophecies were the basis of the original faith, yet as the days passed and the final judgment was still to come, the prophecies themselves began to be shaken.Whether good and evil can have their own fruits is the focus of people's confusion.At the same time, there were different views on the nature of good and evil within early Christianity. Many people regarded the struggle between good and evil as a struggle between the forces of light and darkness in the real world.These views belong to the salvation of the real world and have to be constrained by real politics. When real politics does not match expectations, the theoretical system will be greatly challenged. It was Augustine who turned it all around.Augustine was born in North Africa. He was unruly when he was young. He was heavily influenced by classical religions and other sects. He went to Milan at the age of 30 and converted to Christianity.As he rereads the New Testament and the letters of the early saints, he has a different understanding of theology.He wrote the famous novel and "City of God", which brought theology from the politics of the outside world to the exploration of the depths of the soul.He did not put good and evil in the world, but in the soul of man. Evil is an innate instinct, selfishness, greed, malice, and weakness that cannot change oneself. The flaws in the depths are the biological attributes of human beings, and goodness is the desire to change everything, to use faith to enhance one's own strength, and to practice human nature to move closer to divinity and overcome biological nature.After Augustine, Christianity was truly transformed into a religion of the human heart, not just a religion of people looking for social change. "City of God" describes two cities, one is the ground city commanded by human princes and generals, and the other is the inner city of people guided by God.Such changes have far-reaching consequences for future generations. In the later period of the Roman Empire, the barbarians outside the empire rose and attacked the empire again and again. The leaders of the empire first suppressed, then tolerated, and finally resisted some of the most impactful barbarians, such as the Goths and the Vandals. The rule of the empire at stake.At this moment, people began to discuss the decline of the kingdom. Some people attributed the cause to the rise of Christianity, thinking that people believed in Christ, abandoned Rome's own patron saint, abandoned tradition, and were punished.Augustine's "City of God" was written in such an environment, refuting these accusations from a Christian point of view, arguing that the catastrophe of the empire was the punishment for the polytheistic faith, and that it was the catastrophe of the spiritual degradation of the Romans, not vice versa. Such a historical moment will be the moment when the city of God - the kingdom of the human spirit - descends on earth. There are two people who had a profound influence on Augustine, the first being Paul.Paul was the most important preacher in the 1st century AD. He preached to foreigners in Rome, and his letters were included in the New Testament and became religious classics.It was the first time he broke through the Jewish race and took it as his mission to spread the teachings to foreigners.Such efforts were not understood at first, but in the end, history made Christianity famous.The gods and heroes in Greek-Roman mythology were forgotten by the people with the fall of the Roman Empire, but Christianity took root tenaciously, conquering not only the last Roman emperor, but also the barbarians who invaded Rome.The Frankish king Clovis was the first to convert, and then almost all the barbarian kingdoms that occupied most of the soil in Europe converted to God one after another. Another profound influence on Augustine was Bishop Ambrose of Milan.Bishop Ambrose was the one who introduced Augustine to Christianity.According to records, Bishop Ambrose's deep kindness attracted many followers at that time.In 387 AD, Augustine was baptized by Ambrose in Milan and formally joined Christianity. Ambrose played an important role in the history of Christianity. He was the one who persuaded Emperor Theodosius to establish the state religion.He is the founder of the tradition of the Catholic Church. In addition to changing the beliefs of the Roman Empire, he also created an independent relationship between the church and the state. In his letter to Emperor Theodosius, he debated whether the church should be subordinate to the royal rule, and tried his best Fight for status for the church.He is also an important pioneer of European music. The rudiments of Greek and Roman traditional music were mostly lost in the Middle Ages. Church music became the mainstream of this era, and developed into Western classical music in modern times.The beginning of church music was the singing of hymns presided over by Ambrose. Ambrose's plain songs were early hymns, which eventually became the embryonic form of Western classical music. Ambrose was beloved in Milan and is still visited by devotees from time to time to this day.When you come to the Monastery of San Ambrogio, you can witness the remains of Ambrose with your own eyes, and you can see devout believers bowing their heads and praying in this semi-underground small room, sitting for dozens of minutes.The Monastery of San Ambrogio is not magnificent, but the buildings and courtyards are quiet and beautiful.It is the best place to observe the evolution of religious buildings, some of which are left over from the synagogues of the Roman Empire, some of which retain the mosaic golden roof of the Byzantine Empire, and some of which are modern styles built after the Renaissance. Several styles are unified and coordinated without being abrupt.The main body of the church already has the basic structure of the later cathedral, a Bible is opened in the sun, and there is a white sculpture of the saint praying in the niche.The corridor outside the church was quiet and deserted, with occasional nuns passing by. The courtyard was peaceful and green. The year 387 coincided with the troubled times of the Roman Empire. Before that, in 378, the imperial army was defeated by the Goths, Emperor Valens died on the battlefield, and the complete defeat of infantry against cavalry also marked the demise of the ancient art of war and military system. In 379, Emperor Theodosius succeeded to the throne and signed a peace agreement with the Goths through negotiations.Always oscillating between friendliness and troublemaking, the Goths gradually became the dominant force in the empire.At the same time, the domestic usurper Maximus led the army to take Italy, and Theodosius had to lead the army to conquer.The pacification was successful, but the army was composed of hired barbarian soldiers, led by two Franks who, after killing Maximus in 388, turned out to be the ultimate destroyers of the empire. For the empire, it was the end.For the religious world, this is a beginning.Since then, drastic changes have taken place in the social system, culture, and customs, and nothing in the ancient world has ever been repeated.The final differences between the Roman Empire and the Han Empire, the fate of the two continents finally drifted after the knot. From a retrospective point of view, before Constantine, Christians basically entered the stage of history with a posture of going to death. They were massacred, persecuted, and suppressed, and they completed themselves in a kind of heroism that was almost suicidal.The more brutal the persecution, the stronger the faith.Christians believe this is the way to approach God, and faith survives with a strange energy. Why is the Christian church so tenacious and the most widely spread in later generations? Apart from the legend of miracles and the background of the times, the main reason for this firm tenacity may come from the words of Jesus himself.Legends of miracles were not uncommon at the time, and the political background was not conducive to the spread of Christianity at first. However, the words of Christ eventually surpassed all other leaders at the time and spread to this day.In many religions of the world before and since, the emphasis has been on emptiness, fairness, faithful courage, and order, but Jesus emphasized love.The Gospels say that God loves you forever, and a man should love God, and he should also love his neighbor forever.Such a theory eventually spread, and it also has important inspiration for those of us who do not believe in religion outside of Christian culture.Perhaps what is eternal is not the kingdom of heaven, but the longing for love deep in the heart. The early Christians were very similar to the Mohists in China. The main groups were poor craftsmen, widows, lonely, wandering unemployed, and the lower classes of society.They all pursue a life philosophy of hardship and simplicity, believe in universal love in the world, and share and help each other within the group.Both groups also emphasize the tenacious personality in poverty, and both have generations of believers after the death of the founder.But many followers of the Mohist school are rangers with swords and horses, fighting desperately with the powerful and easily damaged.And Christians endured silently with inner hope in the most difficult days, and finally survived persecution again and again, which has been passed down to this day.Whether it is good or bad, no one can tell. There are many international routes.There are three subways in the city, and the prices are cheap.The attractions in Milan are relatively concentrated, and you can walk to many places. 1.Milan Cathedral: the symbol of Milan.It was first built in 1386 and completed in 1813. After five centuries of careful carving, with the participation of architects from France, Italy, and Germany, it finally became a huge building with 135 minarets and more than 3,000 statues. With an area of ​​12,000 square meters, it is majestic and large in scale.The church still retains a very strong tradition. Visitors who wear tops that fully expose their arms and shorts above the knee are not allowed to enter, and must wear a coat.Visiting the church is free, and you can pay to climb to the top of the church and overlook the city of Milan, which is an excellent travel choice. 2.Santa Maria del Graci Monastery: Leonardo da Vinci's most famous mural, "The Last Supper", is painted on the back wall of the Dominican restaurant in this monastery. The number of visits carried is also limited, so be sure to make an appointment online in advance. 3.St. Ambrose Church: It was built in 379-386, the place where St. Ambrose influenced Augustine. Expanded in the 9th century and expanded in the 11th century, it has a Lombard style and is still one of the main religious places in Milan. 4.National Museum of Applied Technology and Science: Leonardo da Vinci's wooden model, redesigned aircraft, and all kinds of whimsy. "History of the Church" [Ancient Rome] Eusebius (260-339) [American] Mel English translation ◎ He Guanghu, Qu Xutong translation Eusebius's life is not very clear, and we can only know a little bit about his educational background, but his book "History of the Church" is one of the most important works for us to clarify human history.If Herodotus is the father of secular history, then Eusebius is the father of religious history.His ten-volume work is a valuable record of the early Christian faith. "Ecclesiastical History" is a book worth reading for people inside and outside Christianity, because it is not only about religion, but also about history. "Ecclesiastical History" is not the "Gospel", it does not directly and unconditionally promote the faith, but asks every link, trying to confirm the faith.He has researched the origin of the four Gospels, distinguished Christian classics from liars in the name of religion, and reflected on faith and history. "Christ has two characteristics: on the one hand, he is like the head of our body, He is God; on the other hand, like the feet of our body, in order to save us, he put on human nature and became a man with the same nature as us. "No single language adequately describes the origin, nature, and character of Christ. "Paul and Peter were martyred almost at the same time. According to records, it was during the reign of Nero that Paul was beheaded in Rome, and Peter was also crucified; the cemetery of Peter and Paul still remains in Rome." "City of God" [Ancient Rome] Augustine (354-430) Translated by Wang Xiaochao Compared with "City of God", it may be a better book for Augustine to read. Although it is difficult, it is a personal history after all. The thick two-volume book of "City of God" discusses multiple historical and social issues, which inevitably makes people feel daunted. "City of God" is very worth reading. It explores the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, from history to spirit, from expanse to heart. The reason why it is called "The City of God" is that Augustine specifically divided the real world into two cities: "One city is composed of people who live according to the flesh, and the other city is composed of people who live according to the spirit. each living in their own peace when they want what they want.” They are not cities divided geographically, but cities divided spiritually—according to secular politics and carnal desires, or according to divine teaching and self-salvation. , to some extent, such two cities will live forever in human history. "Why must a kingdom fanatically strive for greatness? The human body is a small world, and is it not better to have moderate size and health than to pursue greatness through unnatural torture? "There is only one thing God really needs, a broken spirit, a broken and contrite heart. "The chief sources of the four chief disturbances of the mind: desire, fear, joy, sorrow, which are the source of all evil.... The corruption of the body, which compels the soul to sink, is not due to original sin, but to this punishment for sin; it is not the mortal body that makes the soul sinful, but the sinful soul that makes the body mortal.” The Causes of the Rise and Fall of Rome [France] Montesquieu (1689～1755) translated by Wanling Montesquieu addressed this book to his contemporaries—the eighteenth-century people we call the Age of Enlightenment.This book was written before his most famous "On the Spirit of Law", and the clues of many thoughts can already be seen. Montesquieu is an author full of personal style and daring to express. Compared with Edward Gibbon's six-volume "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", this booklet cannot be simpler. Many historical facts and life stories are written in a hurry. Skipped, did not give a detailed discussion and comparison.But it has a strong style of its own, and Montesquieu's love for perseverance and courage can be seen from the lines, all in one go. "The Romans were doomed to war, which they regarded as the only art, and which they devoted all their ingenuity and all their thought to the perfection of it. "Old custom among the Romans: The Roman people were reluctant to make peace while their enemies remained in their land. "Rome was saved by the strength of its institutions, which, after Cannae, did not even allow women to shed tears. "In the old city of Rome, the people were inspired by the same spirit, the same love of liberty, the same hatred of tyranny... Disputes were necessary, they always existed, And it should last forever. It is only the size of the republic that causes calamities and converts the unrest of the people into civil war. When you see in a country that calls itself a republic, when all are quiet, then it is certain, There is no freedom there."