Chapter 2 Part I World War I

From the depths of history, the closer you get to the surface areas of history (politics, economy, military, diplomacy), the more you feel that things become intricate and intertwined.But all changes remain the same, and the intricacies on the surface of history are generally subject to a few constant and unchanging factors deep in history.Therefore, the international situation before the First World War can be seen as the unfolding of several eternal historical themes in specific plots and details at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. One of the themes of history, the pursuit of power by a country is nothing more than two ways: one is to discover its own potential; the other is to form alliances and borrow the power of others. Most of the Western countries in the 19th century had tried their fists in the European boxing ring, and they could roughly weigh their own weight.The next thing to do is still the diplomatic game handed down by our ancestors.

Since the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was placed in the "Vienna Peace System", and the biggest factor affecting this system was the rise of Prussia.Prussia was originally a small northern state among hundreds of Germanic princes. In 1701, Frederick I was crowned King of Prussia and began to prosper. At the time of the Treaty, Prussia was at the bottom of the list of European powers. In 1861, William I ascended the throne as King of Prussia, and with Bismarck as his prime minister, he ambitiously started the unification of the Germanic nation.Bismarck played tricks among countries, switching roles between lions and foxes, sometimes threatening, sometimes fierce.After the Pudan War in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, in August 1871, Wilhelm I was finally crowned as the emperor of the German Empire in the defeated Palace of Versailles in Paris, France in August 1871.A nation that was once divided into countless small states, constantly fighting with each other, and incessant internal friction, miraculously became the most powerful country in Europe in just a dozen years in the hands of Bismarck.

Before some European countries figured out what was going on, Prussia had "hatched from the shell" and turned into a behemoth, which aroused fear and anxiety in other countries.German Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck was scheming and good at relaxation. He felt that the image of Germany's nouveau riche had attracted the attention of all countries. Will be split into several pieces in a war, as was the case in the days of Louis XIV and Napoleon I of France.Therefore, Germany can only consolidate its vested interests in a peaceful environment of mutual checks and balances.This sense of reality prevented Bismarck from pursuing world hegemony as Germany’s diplomatic goal. Perhaps it was because he was proficient in strategy and well versed in the way of relaxation and relaxation, and then aspired to world hegemony when the time was right.He famously said: "When we have not heard God's footsteps in history, there is nothing to do but wait, but when we hear it, we must leap forward and try to grab the mantle of God." horn."

Because he had not heard the "footsteps of God", Bismarck formulated a whole set of foreign policies aimed at ensuring the vested interests of Germany.Germany was most worried about the strong vengeance of the French.After the victory of the Franco-Prussian War, based on the strong demands of the old Moltke and his general staff, Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine in France.Bismarck was indeed prescient at the time. He opposed the annexation of these lands, believing that this would become a fatal hidden danger for the new German Empire.Now that the annexation had become a fact, Bismarck approached France in a double-handed manner.He assured the French government that he would fully support France's colonial activities around the world, so that the benefits it gained could exceed the losses of ceding the two provinces of Albania and Los Angeles.This has greatly benefited France in its colonial expansion in Africa and Asia, so that in 1883, French President Grevy claimed that he was grateful for Bismarck's kindness to France in the thirteen years after the war.

On the other hand, Bismarck knew that it would be very difficult for the French to completely give up the idea of ​​revenge and recovering A and Luo. However, France alone could not compete with Germany at all, but it could form an alliance with other countries to achieve the purpose.Bismarck decided that if one day France felt that it could rely on Russian aid, the Franco-German war was not far off.Therefore, in addition to opening up to France on the colonial issue, the focus of Bismarck's diplomacy is to isolate France and prevent it from forming alliances with other countries to deal with itself, especially preventing France from forming an alliance with Russia. dilemma.

Therefore, we must be friendly with Russia, this is the key.However, Russia could not let Russia hold on to its weakness and downgrade in order to obtain this kind of friendly relationship. Bismarck adopted a roundabout strategy, and on October 7, 1879, concluded the "Germany Agreement" with Russia's competitor in the Balkans, the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austrian League".Kaiser Wilhelm I originally opposed the alliance with Austria-Hungary, and worried that Russia would become an enemy of Germany. Bismarck was ingenious and pointed out that the German-Austrian alliance would not only not offend Russia, but would make it obedient.The German-Austrian Alliance Treaty stipulates that if one of the contracting parties is attacked by Russia, they shall assist each other.If one party is attacked by other countries (meaning France), the other party should maintain neutrality in good faith.If France and Russia cooperate, Germany and Austria will also cooperate. (Later, the treaty was extended again and again, and it was still in effect until 1914.) At this time, Russia was devoted to the expansion of Northeast Asia, and the "German-Austrian Alliance" made it feel worried about the future.Bismarck exerted pressure on Russia while trying to gain goodwill. He did not interfere with Russia’s efforts to find an ice-free port, and rejected Russia’s competitor in the Far East, Japan’s request for an alliance (once Germany and Japan established an alliance, Russia would be on two sides. The situation of being flanked), he also persuaded Austria to allow Russia to develop towards Constantinople, so as to intensify the contradiction between Russia and Britain.

Bismarck used Austria's self-respect to force Russia to submit, and achieved the expected effect of preventing France and Russia from joining forces.Russia felt that a friendly Germany was to her advantage. On June 18, 1881, Germany, Austria, and Russia concluded the "Three Emperors Alliance" in Berlin.The treaty stipulates that if any of the three countries is at war with the fourth country, the other two countries should maintain neutrality in good faith to localize the war; Russia recognizes the status of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the Balkans granted by the Treaty of Berlin.Another secret appendix stipulated the sphere of influence of Austria and Russia in the Balkans. The "Three Emperors Alliance" lasted for 6 years, and Russia refused to renew the contract because of dissatisfaction with Austria's policy in the Balkans. However, Russia was willing to continue to maintain its alliance with Germany, and the two sides signed the so-called "Alliance" on June 18, 1887. Reinsurance Treaty.

After eliminating the hidden danger in the direction of Russia, Bismarck continued to deploy diplomatic strategies to Italy and Spain behind France. As a result, in 1882, Germany, Austria, and Italy formed the "Triple Alliance" (Romania soon joined, and Serbia also joined for a time).The King of Spain assured the German Prime Minister that if there was a war between France and Germany, Spain would definitely help Germany.After Bismarck laid out this series of chess pieces on the diplomatic chessboard, he was still unsatisfied. He also brokered a tripartite alliance of Britain, Austria, and Italy in the Mediterranean (later Spain also joined the alliance), so as to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean region and at the same time give the "Mediterranean Allies" Create a place of friction with Russia and France, which are about to move in this direction, but Germany itself stays out of the matter.For example, in order to maintain a balanced relationship with Russia, Germany rejected Britain's proposal to join the "Mediterranean Union".

Thus, the outstanding German diplomat of the nineteenth century had succeeded in isolating France during the last decade of his reign.He encouraged Britain, France, and Italy to carry out colonial competition to distract France from Alsace and Lorraine. He used Italy to contain France and Austria-Hungary to contain Russia. Maintaining friendly relations, through the "Mediterranean Alliance", he established contact with Britain via Rome and Vienna. Therefore, the Russian bear, the British lion and the German eagle readily cooperated, and the only one left alone was the Gallic rooster.

Although Bismarck was scheming, good at making wishful thinking, and gained a lot of money, the Russian bear was not easy to fiddle with. The trend of thought is surging, the pace of industrialization is relatively slow, and its influence on Europe has weakened.However, Russia's outward expansion has intensified, and its appetite is getting bigger and bigger.Russia clashed with Britain to seize Persia and Central Asia in the Near East.In East Asia, it collided with Japan's expansion momentum.In order to control the Black Sea Strait, in order to enter the Mediterranean Sea, several wars broke out with Turkey.Russia also pursued "Great Slavism", often regarded itself as the protector of the Balkan and Yugoslav nations, and repeatedly intervened in Balkan affairs, so it also had disputes with the Austro-Hungarian Empire.After the Crimean War in 1854 and the Russo-Turkish War in 1877, Russia's southward momentum was hindered, so it shifted its focus to East Asia.In order to avoid the worries of the west and to contain the Austro-Hungarian Empire, as an expedient measure, they accepted Bismarck's alliance proposal.

Although Russia joined the "Alliance of Three Emperors", all parties have different dreams.Germany wholeheartedly wanted to put France in a situation where it would never turn back, and tried to keep Russia neutral in such a war against France; It is very unfavorable, so it does not want to see France weakened further.So in 1875, when Germany was preparing to launch a pre-emptive war because France recovered too quickly, Russia suddenly expressed its opposition when the Franco-German war was about to start, claiming that if France and Germany went to war, Russia would support France.Due to Russia's breach of the alliance, Germany had to abandon the offensive, and at the same time was deeply dissatisfied.At the Berlin Conference in 1878, Germany came forward to mediate as a peacemaker. Out of retaliation for Russia's betrayal of the alliance, it immediately retaliated and put pressure on Russia together with Britain and Austria. In the "Berlin Treaty", Russia was forced to give up most of the spoils obtained in the "Russian-Turkish War", and its attempt to occupy the Black Sea Strait came to naught.Relations between Germany and Russia have since cast a shadow.However, at that time Russia's number one competitor was the United Kingdom, and the conflict between Britain and Russia was the main international conflict, and Germany basically took a detached attitude towards it. Therefore, Russia felt that despite their mutual discord, it was still beneficial to strive for Germany's friendship. If individuals who reach the pinnacle of power can indeed have a huge impact on history, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who succeeded to the throne in 1888, is the key figure who led Europe and the entire world to the abyss of war.He is the grandson of Kaiser Wilhelm I. His father Frederick died three months after he succeeded to the throne, so he ascended the throne at the age of 29.William II is a split personality with overlapping arrogance and extreme low self-esteem. When he was born, his left arm and hand were disabled due to an accidental mistake by a nurse. However, Prussia requires a man to be a qualified soldier. Excellence in riding skills is the symbol of a soldier. Due to his physical defects, the excessively strict riding training left him with permanent mental scars in his childhood.A resolute and calm appearance hides a fragile and timid heart. Behind the great success is self-willedness, and behind the flaunting of greatness is vanity distorted by inferiority complex.His uncle Edward VII once described him: "Like a peacock who always wants to show off himself, if he doesn't, he will feel inferior and unhappy." He is willing to decorate himself, with rings on his hands and thousands of costumes he loved mischief, good words, riding, hunting, and traveling; he was fond of oratory, but his excellent eloquence was a misfortune to his country.In order to enjoy his addiction, to win applause or thunderous applause, Wilhelm II often speaks wildly and unscrupulously on sensitive issues at home and abroad.On the eve of the First World War, Colonel House, an American diplomat and think tank of President Wilson, believed that Kaiser William II, who had a deformed personality, was full of contradictions in his heart, and struggled between two extremes, was close to the edge of a mental patient . In March 1890, shortly after Wilhelm II succeeded to the throne, Bismarck, who was almost 75 years old, was dismissed from his post as prime minister. This was a diplomatic signal that Germany would undergo major changes in foreign policy.Before and after Bismarck’s resignation, the Germany-Russia Reinsurance Treaty was about to expire, and Russia proposed to extend it for another 6 years, so that it would not have to worry about looking west when it went east to compete with Japan. This is very important to Russia.At this time, William II was planning to join forces with the United Kingdom, coupled with the strong opposition of Chief of Staff Waldsee and Privy Councilor Horstein (the former has an expansionist attitude and has always advocated launching a pre-emptive strike against Russia. The reason for the latter is that France is a democratic country, and Russia is a feudal autocratic country, and they are ideologically incompatible. It is Bismarck's muddled idea to worry that these two countries will form an alliance), so the author once said boldly The emperor who said "there is no mystery in diplomacy, and I shall bear all the responsibilities" was thrown into a dilemma and had no idea. Renew.As a result, Russia made further efforts, proposing to restore the "Three Emperors Alliance" in the early 1880s, and agreed to a Germanic prince to take over as King of Bulgaria. But at this moment, the Germans made another mistake. They told the Austrians that they had severed relations with Russia and that they must strengthen cooperation with each other in the future.This naive approach has completely shaken Bismarck's well-designed Russia-Austria check-in and Germany's advantageous position of not being implicated by any party.Bismarck had a principle when he formed an alliance with Austria: Austria should not feel that Germany was asking Austria for fear of Russia’s threat, because in that case, Austria would drag Germany down in a war with Russia for the Balkans. Come in, and the Balkans are not worth the death of a German soldier.Bismarck once predicted: "If the Austrians know that the bridge between Russia and Germany has been broken, they will try to treat Germany as a pawn of Austria. Therefore, the lives and property of the Germans will be lost because of Vienna's Balkan policy." Judging from the later historical process, Bismarck really came true. Sure enough, due to Austria's firm opposition, the plan to rebuild the "Three Emperors Alliance" was stillborn.Russian Foreign Minister Giles still did not give up, and suggested that the two governments exchange documents abroad, or the two heads of state exchange private letters to ensure that the two sides do not invade each other.But it was still rejected by Germany.The unusual exchange of glances between Germany and Britain and Germany's refusal to renew the contract made Russia panic. Looking around, Russia felt that it had fallen into a state of isolation and helplessness in the world, and felt the need to readjust its diplomatic strategy.Therefore, it began to set its sights on France, which was also in an isolated predicament. At that time, Germany's Bismarck's foreign policy did not advocate colonial expansion, and there were no colonial disputes between Britain and Germany, and the relationship between the two countries was relatively close.Britain also considered forming an alliance with Germany, but was politely rejected by the latter.After William II came to power, he reversed the foreign policy of the Bismarck period and changed to an ambitious "world policy".There are three characteristics of Wilhelm II's foreign policy: one is to actively launch trade competition around the world; the other is to actively compete for colonies on a global scale; It was Bismarck who strongly opposed it back then. He asserted that this would intensify the contradictions with the European powers and trigger a war. In such a war, Germany would be split into several pieces). The "world policy" implemented by William II caused panic in Britain, because the survival of the British Empire was based on the control of world trade and overseas colonies, and the basis for maintaining world trade and colonies was absolute control of the world's oceans, that is, the sea. Lifeline safety.The premise of controlling the sea is to have an absolutely superior navy.Therefore, world trade, overseas colonies, and a superior navy are the three cornerstones for the British Empire to rule the world. The three goals pursued by Germany constitute a direct threat to the foundation of the British Empire. Germany's threat to Britain was first manifested in trade. At the end of the 19th century, Germany’s industrial development speed surpassed that of Britain, and its share in world trade rose from 9.7% in 1870 to 12.6% in 1913, second only to Britain, ranking second in the world.Britain and Germany fought fiercely for the commodity market, and this kind of trade competition expanded from the European continent to Asia, Africa and Latin America.Wherever British merchant ships went, German merchant ships followed them. Facing the strong competition of German trade, Great Britain felt panicked, so that an article in the famous British publication "Weekend Review" thought: "If there is no Germany in the world, , every Englishman could be a little richer the next day.” In terms of colonial plunder, from 1884 to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, Germany only captured a total of 2.9 million square kilometers, less than one-tenth of that of Britain.When William II changed Bismarck's conservative "continental policy" and began to pursue overseas territories, there were only leftovers left on the banquet table of world colonialism.But the Germans have made up their minds, and their Prime Minister Pirlo plausibly said: "The era when the German nation appreciates the blue sky is over, and we also demand the territory under the sun." Germany, which came late, must intensify its colonial expansion, which is It is destined to harm the interests of old colonialist countries such as Britain and Russia. In the mid-1880s, Germany first entered Africa, occupying Togo, Cameroon and Southwest Africa.Then it attempted to connect the colonies in East Africa with the southwestern part.Thus, Germany's vision of establishing an equatorial colonial empire from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic collided with Britain's plan to establish a colonial empire from Cairo to Cape Town. In 1886, the world's largest gold mine was discovered in the Transvaal Republic of South Africa. Greedy British colonists flocked to it and clashed with the local Boers (descendants of Dutch immigrants).Germany took the opportunity to support the Boers against the British. At that time, Germany had invested 300 to 500 million marks in the Transvaal. Regardless of British opposition, it built a road from Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal, to the shore of the Indian Ocean. Lorenzo-Marquez Railway. In 1895, under the planning of the British Colonial Governor Seyal Rhodes in Cape Town, Jameson, the manager of the British "South African Gold Mining Company", led a team of 800 people to invade the Transvaal, but failed.Kaiser Wilhelm II sent a congratulatory message to President Kruger of the Transvaal Republic, expressing his congratulations on the victory of the Boers. Britain regarded this as a provocation, and the relationship between the two countries suddenly became tense.The British then decided to conquer the Transvaal by force.After the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer War, the British claimed that "this is an easy walk to Africa".This "walk" was not easy. Britain invested 250,000 troops, and it took two years of bitter fighting to force the Boers to sue for peace.Germany took advantage of this opportunity to blackmail the isolated Britain by threatening to cut off diplomacy, demanding to carve up the Samoa Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and Britain was forced to give up two of the islands. In the frenzy of partitioning China at the end of the 19th century, Britain and Germany also clashed. In 1897, Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay by force.In June of the following year, Germany took advantage of the killing of two German missionaries to force the Chinese Qing government to sign an agreement to include Shandong in its sphere of influence.Britain, not to be outdone, seized Weihaiwei and expanded its sphere of influence in the Yangtze River Basin to contain Germany. In the mid-1890s, Germany directed its expansion to Turkey and stepped up investment in its economy. From 1897 to 1910, Germany’s share of Turkey’s total imports increased from 6% to 21%, while Britain’s increased from 60% down to 35%. In 1898, Wilhelm II declared himself a friend of the Turkish Sultan and of 300 million Muslims in a gesture of protector. In 1903, Germany obtained the privilege of building the Baghdad Railway, which ran from Constantinople through Baghdad to Basra in the Persian Gulf. Once completed, it opened up a direct route for Germany to the Persian Gulf via Austria-Hungary, the Balkans, and Asia Minor. It became a powerful tool for Germany to advance eastward.At that time, the direction of railway construction represented a country's strategic intentions.Britain panicked about the prospects of the railway after it was built. This railway was like a "German sword" across the chest of the "British Giant".Because this will threaten the security and monopoly of Britain's key areas leading to Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf region and India. In 1903, the British government stated: "Any powerful country that establishes a naval base in the Persian Gulf will be regarded by the British government as a threat to British interests." Germany became the master of Turkey. On April 5, 1900, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs stated in a circular to various embassies abroad: "The imperial government should be concerned about not allowing any foreign power to establish political advantages within the scope of Asia Minor." The construction of the Baghdad railway deepened the The contradiction between Germany and Britain and Russia. Fighting for colonies will inevitably involve maritime hegemony. At this time, the book "On the Influence of Sea Power on History" by American Admiral Mahan is popular in Europe and America. Mahan believes that: the rise of great powers in history is closely related to sea power. It's like controlling the world.Wilhelm II was a fanatical admirer of this point of view. In 1897, he shouted: "The Trident of Poseidon must be held in our hands" and "Germany's colonial goals can only be achieved when Germany becomes the hegemony of the sea."Leading the construction of Germany's new navy was the energetic Admiral Tirpitz, who created public opinion in the country and publicized the importance of building a navy to Germany. In March 1898, Germany passed the Act on Strengthening the Navy, stipulating that the construction of 7 capital ships, 2 heavy cruisers, and 7 light cruisers should be completed by 1904. On June 12, 1900, Germany passed a new Navy Act, which decided to expand the naval establishment, increase the naval budget, and strengthen the scale and speed of construction; it stipulated that Germany should have 34 capital ships, 11 heavy cruisers and 34 light cruisers. and 100 destroyers. In 1906, Germany passed a bill on strengthening new capital ships, stipulating that new ships built in the future must be of the "dreadnought" type, and added 6 large cruisers and 1 small mine-laying fleet. In 1908, Germany took a new step in the naval competition, and the Fourth Naval Act was passed, which stipulated that the service period of capital ships was shortened from 25 years to 20 years, which also accelerated the speed of shipbuilding. Four "dreadnought-class" capital ships are built every year.Due to the above-mentioned powerful measures, Germany became the world's second naval power within a short period of time.Its speed is astonishing. The British began to fidget, because the actions of the Germans had begun to threaten the very existence of Great Britain.So Britain had to accept the challenge and go all out to start a naval race with Germany. In 1889, the United Kingdom put forward a "two-power standard" on the issue of naval development, that is, the British naval strength must be equal to the sum of the naval strengths of the two less powerful countries.But Germany's goal, according to Tirpitz's statement: Germany's naval strength needs to make Britain understand that it will suffer serious losses in naval battles and will no longer be able to fight another country's navy, so it will not dare to go to war with Germany.This was the theory of what Tirpitz called the German "insurance fleet".As a counterattack, the United Kingdom began to build dreadnoughts in 1905. This is a new type of heavy armored ship. Generally, old warships have only 4 cannons, while dreadnoughts have 10 cannons with a diameter of 12 inches, and their displacement and speed are greatly exceeded. Old warship.The Germans were not to be outdone, and immediately began to build dreadnoughts. In 1908, Britain had 12 dreadnoughts, and Germany had built 9 of them. In 1909, the United Kingdom claimed that "for every warship built by Germany, the United Kingdom will build two to fight against it." In March of that year, the British Parliament passed the 1909-1910 naval budget, stipulating that eight dreadnoughts and a large number of small ships should be built. .This kind of endless competition made both sides feel unbearable in the long run. Britain and Germany also held many negotiations for this, but both sides refused to give in to each other, and the negotiations came to no avail.Britain was convinced through negotiations that Germany was ambitious and coveted European hegemony.Richard Haldane, the British Army Secretary who was in charge of the negotiations, said: "I have done some research on the German General Staff, and I think that once the main war faction in Germany is in power, this big war is not just about bringing down France and the United States. Only Russia, and it wants to dominate the world." The closeness between France and Russia has its profound historical background.Since the disastrous defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the recovery of Alsace and Lorraine and determination to revenge have become the driving force for the unity of the French nation. In a short period of time, the national strength has been rapidly restored.However, frightened by the strength of Germany and the success of Bismarck's diplomatic strategy of isolating France, France had no choice but to temporarily shift its focus to the expansion of its overseas colonies.France wholeheartedly wanted to acquire Morocco in Africa and step into the Mediterranean region, which created a sharp conflict with the interests of Britain, Spain, and Italy in the Mediterranean. In 1880, at the Madrid International Conference on Morocco initiated by Spain, Spain, supported by Britain and Germany, forced France to make concessions and stipulated in the signed "Madrid Convention" that all foreign countries have equal rights in Morocco. The right to trade does not grant monopoly to any country.After that, the "Mediterranean Alliance" directed by Bismarck made it even more difficult for France to cope with it for a while.At this time, France faced the hostile Britain and Spain across the English Channel and the Pyrenees in the west and south, and was adjacent to the powerful old enemy Germany in the east. Once the war started, it would be attacked on three sides.Therefore, when the rift between Russia and Germany gradually widened, France seized the opportunity to enter, trying to break Germany's long-term diplomatic encirclement of itself. In the late 1870s, conflicts of economic interests emerged between Russia and Germany.France took the economic field and approached Russia.At that time, the German Junker landlord group opposed the export of grain to Russia, and the Russian industrialists also opposed the import of German industrial products. The two sides fought a tariff war.The issuance of Russian bonds in Germany was blocked again, and the Tsarist government was in urgent need of foreign funds in order to implement currency reform and develop national power. In December 1887, when Germany refused to borrow, Russia signed the first batch of loan agreements with France, borrowing 500 million francs.In the next two years, Russia issued public bonds in France totaling 1.9 billion francs. In 1888, Russia also ordered 500,000 rifles from France.In this way, Russia, which was short of funds, became more dependent on French finances.By 1889, the Russian government owed French banks a whopping 2.6 billion francs.Russia used part of the loan to build the Siberian Railway, which was an important strategy for competing with Japan in Northeast Asia. The close economic relationship between France and Russia has opened up prospects for cooperation in the diplomatic and military fields between the two countries. On July 20, 1891, the report document of the French ambassador to Russia mentioned the attitude of the Russian Foreign Minister Gilles: "It is more and more logical for France and Russia to establish the closest understanding", "As far as we As far as the relationship is concerned, I'm considering whether we should take a step further on the road to negotiations." In July 1891, the French fleet was invited to visit the Russian naval base Kronstadt Fortress. Tsar Alexander III and the Empress personally boarded the French ship, respectfully and took off their hats to the melody of "Marseillaise", which has always been strictly prohibited in Russia. In August 1891, France and Russia signed a negotiation-type treaty, which stipulated that in the event of a German attack or "the peace of Europe is threatened", the two sides would negotiate with each other in order to coordinate their policies and determine a common course of action. On August 17, 1892, France and Russia signed a draft military treaty. On December 15, 1893 and January 4, 1894, the governments of Russia and France formally notified each other of the ratification of the military treaty by letter. The full text of the treaty is as follows: France and Russia, having a common intention to preserve the peace, and only in response to the necessity of a defensive war in response to an attack by the armies of the Triple Alliance on either side, have agreed upon the following terms: 1. If Germany or Italy attack France with the support of Germany, Russia should mobilize all its troops to attack Germany.If Germany or Austria attack Russia with German support, France should mobilize all its troops to attack Germany. 2. If the Triple Alliance or any member of the Triple Alliance mobilizes its armies, France and Russia, as soon as they become aware, shall mobilize all of the armies of both parties simultaneously and bring them as close as possible to the frontier, without any prior existing agreement . 3. France should have 1.3 million troops to fight against Germany, and Russia should have 700,000 or 800,000 troops to fight against Germany.All of the aforementioned armies should join the battle as soon as possible, so that Germany would have to fight simultaneously on the Eastern and Western fronts. 4. The French and Russian Army Staff Headquarters shall cooperate with each other on a regular basis to prepare for and facilitate the implementation of the above-mentioned measures.In time of peace, the Army Staff Headquarters of the two countries shall inform each other of the information they have learned about the troops of the Triple Alliance.The wartime communication plan should be researched and prepared in advance. 5. Neither France nor Russia may unilaterally negotiate peace. 6. The period of validity of this Treaty shall be the same as that of the Triple Alliance. ⒎ The items listed above shall be kept strictly confidential. At this point, the Franco-Russian military alliance was formally formed to counter the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy.The two opposing military blocs in Europe have become very distinct and at war with each other.Back then, Bismarck had two main goals in wooing Russia. He hoped that Russia would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and France; the most important thing was to prevent France and Russia from forming a military alliance.Now the situation that Germany is most worried about being attacked has finally appeared. Although the two major military blocs have been formed, the strength of the two sides is basically evenly matched. The key is which side the British will put the weight on.Britain was founded on commerce, and its survival and development depended on world trade and colonies all over the world.For a long time, the United Kingdom has pursued a policy of balance of power in continental Europe and does not allow a single power to dominate Europe. If there is such a seed, it will not hesitate to join forces with the next-level powers to jointly contain countries that attempt to dominate the continent.Because, objectively, a big country that dominates the European continent must seriously threaten Britain's world hegemony.Therefore, as long as it does not threaten fundamental interests, Britain generally does not participate in alliances. Just as its Prime Minister Salisbury said in 1896, it would rather maintain "glorious independence" so that it will not be subject to any constraints in international disputes. Maintain freedom of movement.However, as the various powers had more and more conflicts of interest with themselves in order to compete for colonies, Britain had to abandon the so-called "glorious isolation" position and began to look for allies. First, in response to Russia's challenge, on January 30, 1902, Britain signed the "Anglo-Japanese Alliance" with Japan, which was competing with the Russians in the Far East.The treaty stipulates: "If the interests of both contracting parties are endangered by the aggression of another major power or the internal turmoil in China and North Korea, and any party needs to intervene to protect such interests, it may take necessary measures"; If your country fights against a third power for the benefit of China or North Korea, the other side should strictly observe neutrality."The Anglo-Japanese alliance made Japan bold in the Far East, and finally triggered the "Russian-Japanese War" in 1905. Japan won the victory, while Britain stood on the sidelines, achieving the goal of containing Russia's expansion in the Far East.Now, because William II's aggressive "world policy" has seriously threatened the fundamental interests of the British Empire, the Anglo-German conflict has developed from regional to global, from commercial trade to control of the sea, which is the most sensitive "world policy" of the British. lifeline at sea".In this way, the conflict between Britain, France and Britain and Russia has taken a secondary position, and the conflict between Britain and Germany has risen to the main contradiction.Britain felt the need to ease the conflict with France and Russia so that they could coordinate to deal with the Germans who were impatient to claim world hegemony. When Britain and France competed for spheres of influence in Africa, there had been fierce conflicts. In 1898, in order to seize Fashoda on the upper reaches of the Nile River in Egypt, the two countries threatened each other with force, and finally this incident ended with France agreeing to withdraw.France saw that Russia had been caught in the conflict between the Far East and Japan. In the event of a war between France and Germany, Russia could not help itself, and France had to find new allies.After the new French Foreign Minister Del Casey took office, he actively promoted pro-British policies.In this way, out of a common fear of Germany, Britain and France came together. When King Edward VII of England visited Paris in 1903, he was ignored and ignored by the French masses. Some even shouted "Long live the Boers" and "Long live Fashoda" at him.Edward VII didn't mind. He talked about his admiration for French history and culture on various occasions. He firmly believed in the close relationship between Britain and France. The time should come.By the time Edward VII was about to leave, he "had won the hearts of all the French", and left France amidst the deafening shouts of "Long live my king" from the French.In less than a year, on April 8, 1904, after the two countries jointly resolved difficulties and resolved disputes, compromised and made concessions, a "sincere agreement" was finally signed. 条约分两部分，一部分公开，一部分秘而不宣。最重要的是《关于埃及－摩洛哥宣言》、《关于暹罗宣言》，以及有关纽芬兰和亚非的一项专约。在非洲，法国承认埃及为英国势力范围，以换取英国对法国统治摩洛哥的支持。协约第一条规定：“英国政府声明，它无意改变埃及的政治地位。法国政府方面声明，它不以要求确定英国占领的期限和其他方式妨碍英国在埃及国内的活动”；协约第二条规定：“法国政府声明，它无意改变摩洛哥的地位。英国政府方面承认，法国特别作为一个其属地在广大地面上与摩洛哥相毗连的国家，有权维持摩洛哥国内秩序，并且提供行政、经济、财务和军事改革所必需的援助”。在暹罗（即今泰国），英、法沿湄南江划分势力范围，“法国承认英国在湄南江流域以西的势力，英国承认法国在该地区以东的势力”。两国还调整了在冈比亚、纽芬兰海岸、马达加斯加和新赫布里底群岛的利益。英法协约很大程度上缓和了两国长期的紧张关系，在殖民地势力划分上，采取“一揽子”解决问题的方式，最终达成谅解，为英法两国进一步的外交和军事领域的合作奠定了基础。 1905年2月，法国公开违反“马德里公约”向摩洛哥苏丹提议改革，使摩洛哥成为法国的附庸国。德国坚决反对，同年3月，德皇威廉二世示威性地访问摩洛哥，并在丹吉尔发表火药味十足的演说，要求摩洛哥永远开放，各大国进行和平竞争。德国政府甚至发出战争信号，声称：“如果法国军队越过摩洛哥的边界，德国军队就越过法国的边界”，这就是“第一次摩洛哥危机”。1906年1月，在直布罗陀海峡北岸的西班牙小城阿尔及西拉斯，召开解决摩洛哥危机的国际会议，4月7日签订了条约，会议重申摩洛哥的“独立”和“主权完整”及各国在摩洛哥享有同等的经济权利。摩洛哥的财政由国际监督，警察和治安的大部分工作由法国管理，一部分由西班牙负责。这实际上承认了法国在摩洛哥的“特殊地位”。在这次会议上，法国取得了英、美、俄、西、意的支持，德国在外交上陷于孤立，只得作出让步。这也是对“英法协约”的一次严峻考验。 当德皇在丹吉尔向法国下战书时，英国总参谋部已考虑在比利时同德国军队交战的问题了。英国新任外交大臣爱德华·格雷爵士建议英法两国总参谋部之间举行会谈，作为军事上的未雨绸缪之计，而同时又无需英国承担责任。此时，法国人发现：俄国这个庞然大物竟被小日本打败，元气大伤，一时无法恢复；而德国又在一旁虎视眈眈。所以法国急于同英国进行军事合作，双方一拍即合，军事参谋人员首先开始了技术性协商。随着“第一次摩洛哥危机”的结束，两国联合军事计划的工作没什么起色，直到1910年，联合计划才有较快的进展。1911年7月20日，英法两国总参谋部负责此事的军官威尔逊、迪巴伊签订了一份文件，规定一旦英国出兵介入，出动的兵力将为6个正规师和1个骑兵师，并明确规定：从动员第4天至第12天，总数为15万人和6万～7万匹马的兵力将在勒阿费尔、布伦以及鲁昂登陆，然后改乘火车开赴莫伯日地区的指定地点集合，而在第13天即可投入战斗。此份计划之详细，就连哪一支部队在哪儿宿营，在哪个咖啡馆喝咖啡都作了安排。1912年，英、法两国又缔结了一项海军协定，规定了两国海军的分工，由英国负责保护海峡和法国海岸的安全，而法国舰队则集中于地中海方面，英国在地中海方面的海上交通安全由法国舰队负责。这样，虽然英国尚未明确承诺在法德战争中将站在法国一边，但军事已超越了外交，对未来战争作了精密而周到的安排。 英法关系从对抗发展为合作，同时也就缓和了英俄之间的紧张关系。当俄国外交大臣拉姆兹多夫听到英法缔约消息时，欣喜地说道：“我们朋友的朋友就是我们的朋友。”英俄之间的矛盾原来是左右国际局势的主要矛盾，由于俄国在日俄战争中已被削弱，加之1905年国内发生革命，急需平息内部矛盾，所以英俄在远东的利益冲突已大为减弱，另外，德国染指波斯，在巴格达铁路问题上咄咄逼人的架势，促使英俄感到有联手的必要。早在1904年，英王爱德华七世就曾向俄国驻丹麦公使伊兹沃尔斯基表示：“迫切希望英俄两国之间建立友好关系，并希望两国之间对于现有的各种问题取得较好的谅解。”1905年，爱德华七世探询了订立英俄条约以结束在中亚地区摩擦的可能性。1906年，英国和法国共同向财力枯萎的俄国政府提供资金贷款，帮助后者度过财政危机。同年5月，英国驻俄大使尼科尔森受命抵达彼得堡后，英俄两国开始外交谈判。1907年3月，俄国舰队访问了英国朴茨茅斯军港，受到热烈欢迎。 1907年8月31日，英俄两国终于缔结了协约。对于达达尼尔海峡、博斯普鲁斯海峡，双方因意见分歧而暂时搁置一旁，协约没有涉及。协约规定：在波斯，北部为俄国势力范围，南部为英国势力范围，中部为中立区。双方都不得在对方势力范围内谋求租让权，也不得阻挠对方在自己的势力范围内获得租让权。在中立区，每方均保留获得租让权的权利，并且不得阻挠缔约的另一方采取此种行动。在阿富汗，俄国承认阿富汗是英国的势力范围。英国政府保证不在阿富汗国内采取、也不鼓励阿富汗采用威胁俄国的措施。俄国政府方面声明，俄国与阿富汗的一切政治关系“以英国政府为居间者”，并承诺“不派使臣到阿富汗”。在西藏，两国都声明“承认中国对西藏的宗主权”。“只有经过中国政府中介与西藏进行交涉”，双方承允“不派遣代表到拉萨”。 英俄协约的签订结束了两国在殖民地争夺上长期存在的纠纷，大大缓解了两者的紧张关系，同时标志着“三国协约”的最终形成。英国终于彻底放弃了“光荣孤立”的政策，虽然还没有同英法签订政府间正式的军事同盟协定，但实际上已倒向一方，它在外交上成功地将法、俄这两个昔日的对手化为未来的盟友，并使德国在国际战略势态上陷于极为不利的处境。至此，历史上古老的游戏之一——“寻找盟友”，在20世纪初眼花缭乱的外交杂耍中落下大幕。尘埃落定之处，欧洲大陆正式形成以英、法、俄协约国集团为一方，以德、奥、意同盟国集团为另一方的两大对抗营垒。欧洲已经变成一只巨大的火药桶，只是在无可奈何地等待着某一根导火线的燃烧。