Chapter 2 Chapter 1 Centennial Ceremony of the Sino-Japanese War

It has been a full hundred years since the "Jiawu War" broke out in 1894 (the 20th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty? Jiawu) in the seventh month of the Gregorian calendar.This one hundred years (1894-1994) is really the most tragic one hundred years in the history of human civilization.During this period, our "group animals" who call themselves "human beings" actually used the killing weapons invented by his so-called "intelligence" to fight two unprecedented "world wars"! ——Prior to this, human wars were all "regional wars", and all human beings were not involved in the flames of war.

Before and after the two world wars, the most miserable of the tragedies may be our miserable Chinese nation.In addition to the sufferings we suffered in the two world wars, we have to add three great armed bloody revolutions—the Revolution of 1911 (1911), the Northern Expedition (1926-1928) and the Communist Party sweeping the mainland. The Peasant Revolution (1949), and countless civil and foreign wars.According to the statistics of the historians of the KMT and the Communist Party, as well as many official and private documents, we have fought more than a thousand major and minor battles in the course of a century, both for civil wars and foreign wars.

Among the hundreds of battles mentioned above, the most puzzling and admirable is the "Jiawu War" to be described in this article and the decisive battle between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party after the Second World War, which our elder Chinese witnessed with their own eyes. up.These two battles are the most critical.Their victories and losses have rewritten history.In these two major battles, the loser wins and the winner loses.Victory or defeat is a common matter in the military.But when the winner loses the battle, he loses so badly, loses "a crushing defeat", loses "the whole army is wiped out", it is unimaginable.

What's even more strange is that these two wars, although one was a foreign war and the other was a civil war, their methods of victory and defeat were highly similar.Generally speaking, the loser will inevitably be big and incompetent, loose, corrupt, factional, and gloating.As a result, the sky fell and everyone died, and it was too late to regret. But the winning side is short and sharp, with strict discipline and one mind, like an arm and a finger.Deliberate, sleepless, and never give up unless you eat the other party.Finally defeated the powerful enemy and reached the sky in one step.But in the future, he will be complacent, arrogant, and hard to stop.In the end, drinking poison to quench thirst did not end well!

Let's just talk about the battle between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party that we have seen with our own eyes!After the Second World War, the Nanjing government was the wealthiest central government in the 5,000-year history of China.The value of gold, silver and dollar bills in stock is unprecedented.Four million troops with American equipment; thousands of aircraft and ships like clouds.It was originally one of the top four in the United Nations.Why did it take only three years to be beaten to the ground by a group of Turkish Communists' "shotguns, hammers, and cannons..." (lyrics of the Anti-Japanese War)! ?When North China fell, half of the rivers and mountains south of the Yangtze River remained intact.General Wedemeyer of the United States said that if the Kuomintang still had a few "broomsticks" (broomsticks) left, it could also block the Yangtze River and prevent the Communist Army from crossing it.Isn't it strange why General Tang Enbo's 400,000 troops were not even as good as a few broom handles? !

Putting aside the "weirdness" we saw with our own eyes, let's go back a hundred years.Let's look at the "War of Sino-Japanese War", isn't that also a weird thing? ! Before the First Sino-Japanese War, our Qing Empire also had a considerable navy!It has two 7,000-ton capital ships with 14-inch armor and 12-inch cannons, as well as various cruisers and dozens of torpedo boats.Every time you perform the exercise, the "snake array" is set up, and the masts and sculls are like clouds, the flags cover the sky, and the momentum is extraordinary!If these ships are placed in today's Taiwan Strait, they are still a considerable steel Great Wall!Not to mention that year.

Before the First Sino-Japanese War, this fleet was also sent by the Qing government to patrol and demonstrate in Korea, Japan, and Singapore in Southeast Asia.The majestic array and the array of flags, even the observers of European and American naval powers are waiting and watching!According to the statistics of the World Military Yearbook at that time, the maritime armed forces of the Qing Empire ranked eighth among the world's navies.The ranking is second only to the seven major powers of Britain, the United States, Russia, Germany, France, Spain and Italy.At this time, Japan also hired a large number of European and American professionals, ordered ships, and determined to develop its navy.However, on the eve of Sino-Japanese War, the total tonnage of the Japanese Navy and its naval combat potential were far behind me; it ranked only sixteenth in the world.According to the analysis of the data, the Japanese navy is definitely not our opponent in the Qing-Japanese confrontation.

[Note] In fact, the so-called ranking of the navies of the world's major powers is just a comparison made by the editors of such books as the Naval Annual, based on the tonnage and weaponry of various countries, and there is no absolute standard.Before the Sino-Japanese War, our naval strength was usually estimated to be between the sixth and eighth.The Japanese Navy is between eleventh and sixteenth. Unexpectedly, after the naval battle broke out on July 25, within a few weeks, our ships were completely defeated and the entire army was wiped out.The majestic battleship was finally captured by the enemy and dragged back to the three islands to serve as a commercial "barge" on the seaside pier, which is also very insulting to China.I recall that in the summer of 1948, the author went to the United States to study abroad. When passing through Japan, I visited the Museum of Japanese War History with a group.There is a large oil painting in the meeting, which exaggerates the battle of the Yellow Sea and the record of annihilating our fleet.It was shocking to see.After returning to the ship, more than 100 students gathered together and signed a letter to the Nanjing Nationalist Government, ordering Japan to dismantle this painting!We were the victorious nation then! ——Thinking about it today: There is still sourness in my heart.

The above is just the Navy.As for the crushing defeat of the army, I can't bear to say more.At that time, the army of the Qing Dynasty, especially the two armies of Hunan and Huaihe Rivers, had just finished a tragic civil war: suppressing the "Guangdong Rebels", eliminating the "Nian Bandits", and suppressing the "Hui Chao" in the Northwest... It was really powerful in the country Plus, it's invincible.On the eve of the Sino-Japanese War, the millions of Pixiu in the Qing Dynasty were all masters of long battles, and their momentum was overwhelming. At this time, the Japanese army was newly built, and there were only more than 100,000 soldiers available-at the time of the "Meiji Restoration", the emperor had no soldiers.Unexpectedly, with the sound of a cannon at Yashan, our army collapsed and was out of control, while the enemy army chased north and cut the flag of the general.In a few months, they not only occupied the frontier fortress, but also approached the capital.The government and the opposition in the Qing Dynasty were shaken, and they shyly asked for peace.What a shame!

I am ashamed to be a teacher.During lectures, whenever Yashan was defeated, the East China Sea lost its teacher; If the outcome of its victory or defeat is like this, what is the reason? !This standard question has been asked in classrooms for decades without a clear answer.Ashamedly, not only the students don't know, but the teacher himself has gone through Chinese and Western historical books, and the handouts have been changed ten times, and the drafts are still in the clouds.A fool can't say that he has nothing to gain.It's just that I cherish my broom, but I don't dare to publicize it because I think it's simple.

This time I visited Taiwan for business reasons and stayed for more than a month, which coincided with the 100th anniversary of the Sino-Japanese War.Brother Liu Shao and Tang wrote an article to commemorate it.Returning to Professor Wang Chung-fu, director of the History Institute of Taiwan Normal University, presented the complete collection of papers on the "Seminar on the Centennial Commemoration of the Sino-Japanese War" held by the National Taiwan Normal University in recent months.Traveling against the road and living at home.Therefore, I read this 704-page tome of about 600,000 words word by word.This collection is the latest information on the Sino-Japanese War literature. If you are lucky enough to read it immediately, you will benefit a lot.Because I want to follow the end of the group of sages, based on the author's teaching experience over the years, I will make a comprehensive analysis of the Sino-Japanese War from different angles, so as to teach the group of sages. Reminiscing about my childish years, because I was born in a family of Huai army survivors, I was not enlightened in my studies, so I have been influenced by my ears and eyes, that is, most of them are the stories and relics of the Huaiyong water and land divisions;He was taught by Guo Liangyu (Ting Yi), inspired by the sudden Pearl Harbor incident, and inspired by the stories of naval battles that he was very interested in when he was a child. History of the Navy, and planned to publish it in chapters in the "Navy Reconstruction Monthly" at that time (from a certain issue in 1942. Recently read the "Index of Chinese Treatises on the Sino-Japanese War of Sino-Japanese War" presented by Mr. Wang Zhongfu, page 50, number In 1007, Tang Degang (the author's original name was Gang Gang Dual Use) "Eighth Chinese Navy's Ending Years" was published in the school magazine of the sea school, September 1948. It is actually a reprint of the first chapter of my book).At that time, it was a discussion of a certain section, which conflicted with Mr. Tian Han, a famous dramatist who was also cooking characters to cure hunger at that time. Mr. Tian Han lived in Guiyang during the war and studied naval history with very few reference materials. It is not as good as I have the library of "National Central University" as the backing (the library of Zhongda University was the best library in the rear at that time).As a result, I was the editor of the journal, not Tian Han, which made me, a younger generation, feel uneasy for a long time.Because I respected Tian Han very much at that time, and I sympathized with him even more.As a junior, I have absolutely no intention of contradicting him.I remember that at that time, Tian Han once wrote a poem about hurting himself: Ye has new poems that don’t help the poor, Guiyang Zhumi Gui as salary; Killing people can't make people tender, A sad cultural person through the ages. Tian Han is a talented poet, prose and drama writer, and also quite knowledgeable (during the Cultural Revolution, he shared the same fate as Lao She and died in a fight).At that time, I was living in Guiyang, and my livelihood was difficult, but I witnessed the corrupt officials on the streets of Chongqing, confiscating wine and meat; I respected and sympathized with Tian Han's poverty, and it was inevitable.Unintentionally contradicting this senior, I feel uneasy, which is really out of sincerity. Although my ridiculous "History of the Chinese Navy" has accumulated a lot of manuscripts, it is even more full of historical materials.Even when he returned home after the war, he still tried to go to Ding Fu (Ding Ruchang) and Wu Fu (Wu Changqing) to search for his early documents.Wu's house is the closest relative; Ding's house is related to relatives.However, before the little scribe was completed, the incomplete manuscript was "land reformed" by the CCP.I was not in a hurry to finish the project, and I also felt that the navy was originally a foreign thing.If you fail to fully grasp foreign historical materials, you will feel that there is a fly in the ointment when you write it.Since the boy is in the prime of life and has the ambition to drink foreign water, the future will be long. Later, unexpectedly, I went to American universities to teach modern Chinese history.Brother Bao Zunpeng, a friend of Shixiang, came to visit from Jianguan, Taiwan.Brother Bao was working at the Navy Headquarters. He had read my old work in the Navy Monthly, and he wanted to ask me to remake Feng Fu and co-author the history of the Navy.However, I was busy with other things at the time, looking forward to the future, and I didn't expect it to be forever.Furthermore, the author was teaching modern history at that time, which involved a wide range of subjects, and the navy was only a part of it. Let’s take Horatio Nelson Lay, the first Chief Taxation Officer of the Customs, the Englishman Li Tai (Horatio Nelson Lay) as an example!In the early years of Tongzhi (1863), when the Qing court entrusted him to buy eight ships and try to run the navy, this boy was only 30 years old, and he wanted to be the Admiral of the Qing Empire (Admiralissimo).Of course he didn't succeed as a generalissimo, and the Qing court couldn't find its own generalissimo.Zeng Guofan wanted to incorporate these eight gunboats into his "naval division"; the Manchus were afraid that Guofan would become too big and refused to allow it.Guoquan, Guofan's younger brother, was besieging Long Mao in Nanjing at that time, and he didn't want this foreign ship to share his first victory in taking Nanjing.The eight ocean liners finally became bereaved dogs, and in the end Li Taitai had to return them to their original owners and auction them off. ——The depreciation and commission of this kind of buying and selling are huge.Needless to say, Li Taitai made a fortune.Anyway, the money was paid by the public (the tariff managed by Li Taitai), and the ministers of the Qing Dynasty did not feel any pain or itching for the loss of the Qing Empire. Later, Robert Hatrt (Robert Hatrt) succeeded Li Taitai as the Chief Taxation Secretary, and he also had the ambition to be the Generalissimo.Afterwards, it was decided that a literati was not good enough for the post, so he was referred to Williams M. Lang, a British naval officer.When Li Hongzhang formally compiled and trained the Beiyang Navy, the Lang family considered himself a deputy admiral, and his official position was actually "chief inspector" (chief instructor).Lang was born in the British Royal Navy and served as an officer in the Chinese Navy.The British Navy originally had a three-headed carriage system, so Lang also implemented a two-headed carriage system in the Chinese Navy.Finally, the so-called "flag-raising incident" occurred.Unwilling to be "humiliated", the Lang family left in a rage.Sino-British relations have been stranded.We will discuss it in the next section. Coincidentally.Unexpectedly, 50 years later, "Sour Vinegar Joseph" Stilwell (Joseph Stilwell) was not reconciled to making "peanuts" in Chongqing ("peanuts" was one of the international codes used by Chairman Jiang during World War II). Codename) "Chief of Staff" (Chief Investigation?), insisted on being the "Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Army and Air Force", but was finally dismissed by "Peanut".Shi's leaving in a rage also paved the way for the subsequent Yalta Conference, which has caused troubles to this day. These little stories in history, you say they are big, are not too big.You say it's small, but it's not too small.There are so many Chinese and Western historical materials about them!Therefore, to study this kind of history, historical materials are not a problem. There are plenty of historical materials!The problem, then, is how to "interpret" these historical materials.According to these historical facts that are basically the same, we should use concise and abstract language to "explain" them to make sense.This is called "conceptualization" in the field of social sciences.Since the author taught modern Chinese history concurrently at various universities in New York in the mid-1950s, I have changed my lecture notes ten times, and not all of them are due to the release of new historical materials.I really want to "justify myself".Talk about some theoretical theories that you can believe in, and then teach students of all ethnic groups to make them believe in "the teacher said". One hundred years have passed since the Sino-Japanese War.Most of the original historical materials have also been excavated.According to these historical materials, to give a comprehensive explanation of this war, this is what the author is bold and reckless, and I am committed to it in this humble article. I have been in contact with Yangxueli for a long time, and every day I would like to handle the case for reversal of the case for Tuxueli.This is probably also a phenomenon that should exist in the Chinese cultural circle after "Post May 4th"!Since the May Fourth Movement (or even earlier), the so-called "Traditionalism" (Traditionalism) has been criticized by foreigners and scholars of the new school.The Master said: "It's okay to think again!" After we swear at someone, we come to him for a "second thought" (second thought), and we often find that "swearing is too much", or even "swearing is wrong"; Scolding!" For example, foreigners and their Chinese apprentices always happily say: "Unlucky China, it has not made any progress in three thousand years." I, a general history teacher of the world, found that comparing China with other races, our political and social system has been the most stable in the past one or two thousand years. !Even an unlucky little foot has been bound for a thousand years; if you say it slowly, it is the "Three Cardinal Guidelines and Five Constant Principles", "Four Dimensions and Eight Virtues" and "Three Gongs and Nine Qings".The little feet are bastards, and the three cardinal principles and five constant principles, the four dimensions and eight virtues, and the three males and nine ministers are useless? !If we remove its dross and eliminate useful metals, can't we fill in the gaps of the so-called "western modern civilization"? ! The author was in the middle of writing my essay when suddenly my old friend, Professor Du Weiming, knocked on the door and made an insulting visit.At first I thought Brother Weiming had a personal matter to ask.I was flattered to know that he came here to talk about learning. Professor Du recently accepted the appointment of Harvard University, and is organizing the popularization of Sinology and Confucianism in the compulsory courses of the school, and listed it as a part of the compulsory courses for undergraduates.The number of employed persons has reached more than a thousand, which is an unprecedented event in the history of American higher education. Weiming said: "For more than a hundred years, we have been learning from the West. Now we have learned all their good things. It is time for them to learn our good things too!" Du Zi's words won my heart.Professor Du is the most prominent post-May 4th scholar and thinker among Chinese Americans today.It is not the same as the so-called "masters of Chinese studies" who are generally conservative. ——This is also the difference between "modernization" and "super-Westernization" (Post-Western), and "ossification" and "fundamentalists". Long story short.We have a cultural stereotype that has not changed for two thousand years.But this "stereotype" could not be maintained after the Opium War.It wants to "transform".Transformation starts with "change".It changed from "unchanged for a thousand years" to "changed every ten years".Twenty changes in a row.If you are poor, you will change, and if you change, you will succeed.Change it for two hundred years and create a new "stereotype".Then it can remain unchanged for thousands of years. Or ask: What kind of model is this new stereotype?Said: I can't know for sure.It will be the wisdom, experience and blood and tears of the whole nation, slowly surviving through the "Three Gorges of History" of two hundred years.After it is boiled out, you will suddenly realize it with one step. ——Now our historical Three Gorges is coming to an end.Don't be impatient, everyone.Another "stereotype" is already in sight. Therefore, a modern history of China is a history of transformation of Chinese civilization, and this transformation movement has its own obvious "stages". The Sino-Japanese War was an extremely important stage—it marked the end of one stage and the beginning of another. ——Expressed in the latest specific language, that is, from the "four modernizations" to the "five modernizations".Without the "five modernizations", the "four modernizations" are often futile (emphasis on the word "often").This is the most basic reason for the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War.As for firing two more shots and firing two fewer shots, my friend, that is a trivial matter; it is nothing to worry about. The "four modernizations" were originally called "doing barbarian affairs" and "doing foreign affairs" in the late Qing Dynasty;Scholars in the Republic of China added a foreign label to it, calling it "self-improvement movement", "science and technology modernization", and "national defense modernization". The earliest modernization of science and technology was launched by Lin Zexu's ship gun policy.However, Lin Zexu, a scholar-bureaucrat who was born in Kejia, his superior Emperor Daoguang, his son Emperor Xianfeng, and many "famous ministers of Zhongxing" all belonged to the "Wangyang Xingtan Clan" (and use a new Taiwanese term).They only engage in "cannons", not "ships".In their view, it is unimaginable to fight against the barbarians and become the "Third Prince of the Dragon King" on the treacherous ocean.In Chinese history, from Qin Shihuang to Qi Jiguang, none of them had the idea of ​​going to sea, let alone them.Therefore, the early ship gun policy, in the Dao and Xian dynasties, only engaged in guns, not ships. During the Opium War, Lin Zexu bought a 1,080-ton oceangoing ship "Cambridge" (Cambridge) from an American merchant, and installed 34 British cannons.However, Commissioner Lin Qin did not want to drive this ocean-going ship to sea to confront the British ship.On the contrary, he moored the foreign ship across the Pearl River Estuary as an obstacle and also as a fort.As a result, the British sailors climbed up and drove away with the boat and guns. Later, Changmao fought near Shanghai (1854), and wanted to join Xiaodao.Wu Jianzhang, a Shanghai Taoist who was born in a businessman, is quite proficient in Western affairs.He knows that foreign ships are invincible.So he bought a 430-ton draft ocean boat named Confucius (Confucius) from foreign merchants to "assist the suppression". He also hired some foreign sailors to control "Confucius". Ward, an American wreck, was a sailor of "Confucius". Later, Wu Jianzhang didn't want "Confucius", and he gave "Confucius" to Xiang Rong in the Jiangnan camp. "Confucius" is not interested either, because "Confucius" is too fat and not flexible enough. He ran aground at every turn in the Yangtze River. But those long-haired sampans are hiding among the creeks and reeds. "Confucius" treats them There is no way. Therefore, Xiang Rong does not want "Confucius". This is also the basic reason why the above-mentioned eight ocean liners purchased by Li Taitai were returned. In short, the "Mandarins" in the early Qing court were all interested in the flowering cannons of foreigners, but not in foreign ships.To modernize national defense, they desperately bought cannons and built forts.Therefore, from Lushunkou and Dagukou, Wusongkou in the middle, and Humenzha in the middle, they bought countless flowering ocean cannons; built dozens of coastal defense forts, waiting for the "barbarians" to land.Do you believe it: Later, during the "January 28" (1932) and "August 13" (1937), we set off the sky-shattering cannons on the Wusongkou Fortress, all It was installed by Zeng Wenzheng and Li Wenzhong in the late Qing Dynasty! The gun is purchased from abroad.But shells, torpedoes, mines and rifles, which consume a lot of money, should be made by ourselves!Therefore, before and after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was about to be flattened, Zeng Guofan became the governor of Liangjiang, and Zuo Zongtang became the governor of Fujian and Zhejiang. The two of them recruited foreign craftsmen and bought foreign machines in Shanghai, Fuzhou (Mawei), and Nanjing respectively. Self-made foreign ammunition.As everyone knows, foreigners don't know the difference between boats and guns.If you can make cannonballs, you can make cannons; if you can make cannons, you can build ships.Since we can make our own cannons, we can also make our own "fire wheels" naturally.This is the origin of the later "Jiangnan Machinery Manufacturing Factory" (today it can manufacture ocean-going ships of more than 100,000 tons, and may be designing and manufacturing aircraft carriers), "Mawei Shipyard" and "Jinling Arsenal".When Zhang Zhidong became governor of Huguang and Li Hongzhang became governor of Zhili, the arms industry expanded to Hanyang, Tianjin and Dalian.Officials from all over the border can also ride on the self-made steamer. Since they can manufacture small steamers and small gunboats, it is imperative to have their own maintenance technicians, helmsmen, and even engineers for design and supervision.Therefore, Zuo Zongtang, who was far-sighted, courageous and honest, facilitated the fifth year of Tongzhi (1866) to set up the first shipping school in Mawei.Among them, the two subjects of wheel engineering and driving - this is the cradle of China's first modern navy; although its ending is very sad.That is also caused by the mistake of only focusing on the four modernizations and ignoring the five modernizations! The above-mentioned policy of shrinking one's head and waiting for a rabbit in the early days of Westernization had undergone epoch-making changes in the last year of Tongzhi (1874).This year, Japan sent troops to invade Taiwan under the pretext of killing Ryukyu boat people by the Taiwanese Peony Society, which caused a shock in the Qing Dynasty.Especially Li Hongzhang, the new Governor of Zhili and Beiyang Minister.He was on guard against Japan's imminent move. In the ninth year of Tongzhi (1870), Mrs. Li succeeded Zeng Guofan as Minister of Beiyang and was stationed in Tianjin.When I got out of the car, I encountered Japan sending envoys to China, demanding "treaty rights" (actually unequal treaty rights) equal to those of European and American countries.Hong Zhang was astonished.Since ancient times, China has regarded Japan as a vassal.At first I didn't expect that this small country would call itself an imperialist country and would develop a colony in China. We read the transcripts of Li Hongzhang's conversations with the Japanese envoys at that time, and Li Zhi's tone is still that of a minister of the country, but history readers know that he is stern and introverted.After Japan received most of what it paid, the treaty was still wet, and the Japanese army landed in Lang ( ), Taiwan (April 1874. Unless otherwise noted, this article uses the Gregorian calendar).Under the exclamation of the whole country, Hongzhang hurriedly transferred 6,000 people from Tang Dingkui, an elite Huai army stationed in Xuzhou at that time, to rent a ship and rush to Taiwan to fight. After being stimulated by this, Li Hongzhang decided to build his own navy to resist insults.His imaginary enemy from beginning to end was Japan, and he knew that there would be a war sooner or later.After the Gai Mudanshe Incident, the Japanese created the "Ganghwa Island Incident" in Korea in September 1875.Forcing North Korea to sever its relationship with the Qing dynasty and conclude a treaty with Japan. In 1879, Japan again forced Ryukyu to annex it.In 1882 and 1884, Japan created the so-called "Imoh Incident" and "Gapshin Incident" in Korea.Its ambition to annex North Korea has been clearly revealed. ——In this way, Li Hongzhang believes that the European and American powers are still thousands of miles away, while the emerging Japan is at the elbow.The army was built to resist Japan.There is no need to delay, so I ask the imperial court to disband all the old navy and set up a new navy as soon as possible. Fortunately, the domestic civil war has temporarily come to an end, and the foreign war has slowed down.The government, especially the provincial government, was controlled by the enlightened faction, and the national power recovered rapidly.There are two young widows hanging down the curtain in the court, and they are also quite capable of recruiting talents and admonitions.The Prime Minister's Yamen is presided over by Prince Gong and University scholar Wenxiang. He has been in the altar for a long time and is also familiar with foreign affairs.Foreign envoys are stationed in the capital and have frequent exchanges.When China and foreign countries get along, they can also trust and understand each other.In particular, the United States has shifted from a tragic civil war to domestic reconstruction. It has no territorial and economic ambitions for China, and it can openly help each other in case of trouble.In the seventh year of Tongzhi (1868), Anson Burlingame, the U.S. ambassador to China, was persuaded by Wen Xiang to resign from his post in Washington. On it, no more.At that time, WAP Martin, an American missionary, was also hired as a consultant (foreigner) to the Zongli Yamen, and translated the public international law into Chinese, refreshing the eyes of the Chinese people.Ding is quite proficient in ancient Chinese books, and is also good at Mandarin and Cantonese, which is highly valued by Chinese scholar-bureaucrats.Zeng Jize gave him a poem to compliment him, saying: "I am good at both Chinese and Western arts, and both take the pearl from Lilong's jaw." Xun is not an empty reputation. In short, at the peak of the so-called "Tongzhi Zhongxing" (much like the current "Xiaoping Zhongxing"), the aging Qing Dynasty was quite revived for a while.At this time, under the scientific management of Hurd, the Chinese Customs had no trace of corruption and had a lot of income.The Zongli Yamen, instigated by the court, used 40% of the customs revenue, about 4 million taels, for the construction of a new type of navy.Sri Lanka is the first new type of "defense budget" in modern Chinese history. At the beginning of the establishment of China's new navy in the late Qing Dynasty, there were many opinions. However, Xue Fucheng, a think tank of the Huai Army and a former minister in France, made the most pertinent argument.Xue advocated that the Chinese navy should be divided into three major fleets of Beiyang, Nanyang, Fujian and Guangdong, and 48 ships, which should be built and operated separately.The Beiyang Fleet was supervised and built by the Governor of Zhili, Beiyang Minister, to defend the gate of the capital.The Nanyang Fleet was commanded by the Governor of Liangjiang and the Minister of Nanyang to defend the southeast coast and inside and outside the Yangtze River.The Fujian-Guangdong Fleet is under the charge of the Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, defending the southeast coast. ——This three-point system has not been changed so far. The command of the Chinese navy follows the moral system, and the navy, like the army, obeys the orders of the provincial-level border officials, so the Chinese "admiral" (admiralty) also adopts the provincial-level "admiral" system.When the new type of navy was established and the old navy was abolished, Li Hongzhang was transferred from Ding Ruchang, the admiral of the Huai Army Navy who had experienced many battles and was honest and honest, to the admiral of the navy, commanding the Beiyang Fleet.The highest official rank in the Nanyang and Fujian-Guangdong management belts is only to the commander-in-chief (naval division commander), and there is no rank of admiral.The speaker may ridicule Hongzhang for the reason for the defeat of the army and the navy.Little do they know that the commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet who defeated China, Ito Yuhiro (1843-1914), also changed from land to sea, just like Ding Ruchang.In the era of the Republic of China, when the Kuomintang and the Communist Party built the navy, why not switch from land to sea? !Those who hold this theory are inferior to the superficial theory. During the planning period of the navy, the budget of 4 million yuan was originally proposed to be divided in half between the north and the south.Double extension, parallel development.At that time, the Minister of Nanyang and the Governor of Liangjiang was Shen Baozhen.Shen was originally the supervisor of the "Fuzhou Shipping Bureau", and he is an expert in this department.He believes that new warships, no matter whether they are self-built or purchased from outside, are expensive.The budget of 4 million yuan is not too much for the purchase and construction of ships for one team; it is too little for the two teams to share.Since the Beiyang Fleet is in the defense of the capital and has the greatest responsibility, he took the initiative to suggest that the entire budget should be assigned to Beiyang.After the Beiyang Fleet was quickly established as an army, Nanyang was built. Of course, Li Hongzhang couldn't ask for Shen Zhi's suggestion.Who knows that the Manchu Qing Dynasty at the time of Tongzhi Zhongxing was still only the Manchu Qing Dynasty.Beiyang may not benefit from Nanyang's modest resignation.During Li Hongzhang's founding of the army, the Beiyang Fleet received only 1.2 million taels per year.Where the huge budget goes, the misappropriation of public funds and theft of private pockets have long been official practice.Although Li Hongzhang was a capable official for a generation, he was also an old bureaucrat in the official career; he would not make trouble for himself because of the loss of public funds.Even if it was 1.2 million taels, it was already a huge sum of money at that time.During the same period, the high-end warships built by Britain and Germany cost only four to five million taels. ——After the Japanese army invaded Taiwan in the last years of Tongzhi, Hongzhang purchased ships and built ships with a budget of one million a year. A decent fleet of the eighth largest navy in the world was born. [Note] Regarding the above-mentioned sections, there is a mountain of Chinese historical materials, see "Index of Chinese Works on the Sino-Japanese War of Sino-Japanese War" edited by Wang Zhongfu, published by Taiwan Normal University in June 1994; there were similar works in mainland China ten years ago.Among them, Professor Qi Qizhang's "Beiyang Fleet" (published by Jinan People's Publishing House in 1981) should be the most concise for the information about the Beiyang Fleet, which is enough for both refined and popular tastes.For concise historical materials in English, please refer to John L. Rawlinson China's Struggle for Naval Development 1839～1895. Harvard University Press 1967.The author comes from a church family.During the Shanghai War in 1937, his father died when our plane mistakenly bombed the "Great World".This book is the author's doctoral dissertation, with a concise bibliography in Western language.The author and the author have been friends for decades.The author also rarely has a more detailed English bibliography to make up for its shortcomings. Now that the regulations have been formulated and the funding has been secured, Li Hongzhang received a grant of 450,000 taels in the first year of Guangxu (1875), and entrusted the Englishman Hart of the Chief Taxation Department to make a special trip back to England to pay for the most advanced technology in the UK. Armstrong shipyard ordered four ships.This is the standard gunboat of Zhendong, Zhenxi, Zhennan, and Zhenbei in the Beiyang Fleet later, with four ships in one type.Later, Li Hongzhang bought two more guns—the middle of the town and the border of the town—because of his novelty, sharpness and low cost (150,000 taels each).These six British-made gunboats, the so-called "Six Towns", formed the prototype of the Beiyang Fleet. The six ships were originally built separately.Their tonnage, artillery power, etc., cannot be absolutely the same.There are indeed differences between Chinese and Western historical records, and it is difficult for historians to review.Roughly speaking, they belong to the same level, which is beyond reproach.The displacement of the six ships is roughly 440 tons; the captain is 217 feet long, with a steel hull and no armor.Ten knots per hour.Each ship has two to five twenty-two-pound (gunpowder) recoil guns.The biggest feature of this new "Epsilon" type ship in Amos Village is that it sails in two directions, like a ferry across the Yangtze River, and there is no need to turn around when returning.Fighting on the ocean, suddenly front and back, appearing and disappearing, you will be the first to control the enemy.This kind of dexterous gunboat was also advanced in the British Navy at that time. In order to avoid China's new navy, it is only affected by a certain country, and because of Hongzhang's love for German-made munitions, especially the cannons produced by the Krupp factory. ——Let's just gossip: The cannon Li Hongzhang bought at this time was later seen by Sai Jinhua's German "boyfriend" Waldsee, and they were all amazed!Because there are not many in the German army.President Jiang also liked German-made cannons.Even the author, the little "Queen of the General", once owned a German-made "No. 3 Barrel" (box gun) and one hundred rounds of No. 403 bullets when he was a child.Its blue light is shining, exquisite and exquisite, and it is still dreamed of; it is the favorite toy of childhood! ——So when Hongzhang got another huge sum of money, he turned to Germany to place an order. In the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1881), Hongzhang invested another million and ordered 7,400 tons of 14-inch armor from the German company Vulcan through the Chinese Embassy in Berlin. Two "battleships" with four 12-inch (30?5 cm) cannons.These are the two "ironclads" of the Chinese Beiyang Fleet, Dingyuan and Zhenyuan. The two battleships Dingyuan (later the flagship of the Qing Navy) and Zhenyuan were the latest warships in the five oceans at that time.After these two ships became the main force of our navy, together with several auxiliary ships, the combat effectiveness of the Chinese navy surpassed the "Far East Fleet" of the British navy, which was the strongest in the world at that time. ——In other words, if the "Opium War" or the "British-French Allied Forces" were to happen again, it would be hard to say who would win the battle.It's just that the armor of Dingyuan and Zhenyuan is too heavy, and the length of the ship is 308 feet. They also use twin stew propellers and can sail in both directions.Their speed is only 14.5 knots, sometimes only 10 knots, which is a little too slow.In combat, you can stand firm, and you can surround and wipe out enemy ships, but moving like a rabbit and chasing north is not its specialty. ——In short, "armor" was the focus of maritime strategic thinking at that time.Li Hongzhang was also fascinated by it.Therefore, no matter the price, we must ask for its soldiers to be strong and strong, and to be perfect. ——The cost of the second ship is 6.2 million marks a ship (Guan Liang is always more than 2 million taels). Li Hongzhang is from Hefei. The local national character of "Hefei Old Hen" has a habit called "Fu Dajiazi", which is a kind of gambler personality.The so-called "families have no food reserves and throw millions".Li Hongzhang is such a person.So he started the navy desperately.Now he is among the top eight.Of course, when he spent money, he was frightened and stunned. It should be noted that the development of the world's navies a hundred years ago, like today's air force, is changing with each passing day.The strategic thinking of the navy is also constantly changing.It shifted from focusing on the "heaviness" of battleships to the "lightness" of cruisers very quickly.World powers compete with each other around this strategic concept.It is the so-called "World Arms Race". In the modern history of China, Li Hongzhang is indeed the first national leader, and possibly the only one, leading China to participate in this world-class armed Olympics.But participating in the Olympics requires national mobilization.It's a pity that Li Hongzhang has been playing around, and he is still only "one person against a country" (Liang Qichao's comment on him), so it will not last long. Following Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, Li Hongzhang continued to order five light cruisers of two to three thousand tons from Britain and Germany——Jiyuan, Jingyuan, Laiyuan (German system) and Zhiyuan and Jingyuan (British system) ), plus the Chaoyong and Yangwei purchased earlier, as well as the Pingyuan, Weiyuan, Kangji, Meiyun, Taian, Zhenhai, Haijing and other wooden warships built by Fuzhou Shipyard, and several torpedo boats. This is where the full strength of the Beiyang Fleet lies. （共船舰二十五艘，约四万五千吨，参见戚其章《北洋舰队》；王英男〈北洋舰队实力总览〉，载上引《论文集》页三〇〇；或Rawlinson 前书List of ships，1860～1895，pp246～259. 作者查明甲午之前三十五年中清海军共有舰艇一三四艘。资料分列极为详尽。） 表面上看来，李鸿章这支大舰队，是世界一流的了。但是亲自参加这项军备竞赛的李鸿章本人是知彼知己的。他知道他的舰艇速度不够快。他要加买快速巡洋舰。在甲午前夕英国的阿摩土庄厂知道它老主顾的脾胃，特以新近下水的世界最快、时速二十三浬的四千吨巡洋舰，奉献给这位中国“宰相”。英人知道鸿章是内行，非买不可；鸿章也自知非买不可。 ——但是四化没有五化，就要出毛病啰！举朝只一个行家；余子碌碌，众口铄金，他就买不成了。结果这条船被日本人买去，就变成后来日本的吉野号。 ——其后把我北洋舰队冲得落花流水者，即此姝也。着史者，执笔至此，岂能不感慨系之？This is a later story. 以上所述是清末北洋舰队的船炮等物质条件（hardware）。船炮总得要有人使用嘛！为着掌握这项即将到来的中国史所未有的庞大海军，李鸿章于光绪七年（一八八一）在天津成立水师学堂，以训练海军专才。但千船易买，一将难求。远水不救近火也。谁知他因祸得福：一八七九年那位也是船政专家的两江总督、南洋大臣沈葆桢病故。一八八四年秋中法战争爆发，法帝海军偷袭我马尾舰队，七舰皆毁。沈葆桢生前苦心孤诣所建设的南洋舰队，至此半遭摧毁。李鸿章奉命调刘铭传率淮军旧部，再援台湾；同时收拾中法战争这个烂摊子。他乃南才北用，把南洋舰队里的精华干部，悉数调入北洋舰队服务。宝剑赠英雄，二者竟然一拍即合。这才解决了他的人才问题（personnel）。 为着了解甲午之战时北洋舰队里那些失败英雄，我们还得从他们出身的马尾水师学堂说起。 且说甲午黄海之战时，中日双方参战者，各有大小舰艇十二艘。我方的十二舰共有舰长（管带）十四人（镇远、致远二舰均一死一继）。这十四管带经笔者约略调查，似乎全是马尾水师学堂的毕业生。最不可想象者是，他们十四人中，至少有十人是马尾船校“第一期”的同班同学。在他们底下工作的大副二副等人，马尾校友就更不知道有多少了。 在这十四管带之中，有四人在黄海之上阵亡殉国。有三人因战败随丁提督愤恨自杀。另一人显然含寃而死。——真是惨烈之至！ 梁启超说：甲午战争是李鸿章“以一人而敌一国”。同样的，那空前绝后的鸭绿江口黄海大战，也是马尾船校以一校一级而大战日本一国呢！ 马尾！马尾！我为尔欢呼。您在五千年中华通史上，青史留名，永垂不朽！ 马尾水师学堂（俗称）或福州船政学堂，原是左宗棠左文襄公任闽浙总督时，于同治五年（一八六六）在福州马尾创办的，官名“福州船政局”。聘法人日意格（Prosper Giquel）为总教习，任期五年，从事船炮轮机的制造，和驾驶人才的训练。 是年左宗棠奉调远去新疆，对付正在挑衅的俄人。左公在西北“手栽杨柳三千里，引得春风度玉门”，也干了一番大事，而他在福州留下的船政局，就保荐科甲正途出身、林则徐的女婿沈葆桢，继承其事了。——抗战后那位受辱于美军皮尔逊，而引起全国学潮的北大女生沈崇，便是沈葆桢的曾孙女，林文忠公（则徐）的外玄孙（见当时北大校长胡适的电报）。 沈葆桢是个有见识有度量的干才，他把这船政学堂取了个文绉绉的名字叫“求是堂艺局”，办得有声有色。但是从这“艺局”二字，我们也可以看出当时科甲出身的士大夫，对这所新式的“海军官校”的认识了。艺局所培养出来的当然只是些学徒技工啊！技工艺人在清朝以前的传统宗法制度里，往往都只是些与倡优同列的“无籍”或“乐籍”、“贱民”呢！为缙绅之家的子弟所不屑为。所以沈氏当时所招收的，都只是一些清寒之家的子弟。为贪图食宿公费和每月一两的饷银而来。然既来之后，则不许利用艺局的免费教育，私自准备参加科举。 这个近代中国第一座海军官校，第一期有学生约六十人，于同治五年清历十二月（一八六七年阳历二月）正式开学。学生分为轮机与驾驶两班。课程则由基本数理化，及英法文与古典汉文开始。轮机术语用法文（当时欧洲大陆乃至国际法的标准语言）；驾驶用语则英语也。盖斯时英国掌海上霸权，英语欧美通用也。纵迟至今日，国际机场指挥塔（包括北京、上海、台北），公用语言仍为英语也。 由浅及深，学制五年，学科术科与舰上实习并重。学生结业后，再随轮实习三年，便粗具一轮之长（驾驶或维护）的资格了。然后再由政府选送至英国格林威治皇家海校（Royal Naval College, Greenwich），深造三至五年，并进入英国舰队见习，或至德法各高级船厂，见习造船。——十年树木，百年树人。一个现代海军将才的培训，其严格有如此者。反观数十年后，我们“黄埔一期”搞三五个月的稍息立正，就可毕业。二者何能相比？ 所以当李鸿章在欧洲大买其舰艇时，他需要大批专才来当“监工”；来“接舰”时，这批南洋培训的海军学生，就可以大派其用场；他在天津自办其水师学堂（一八八一），也就不愁没有师资了。 且举几位“马尾一期”的佼佼者，让大家结识结识： 马尾一期生，以第一名入校，可能也是第一名结业者，名为严宗光。他后来改名严复（一八五四～一九二一），则康有为、梁启超、张之洞、翁同和、谭嗣同、载湉、乃至陈独秀、胡适之等早期就丢掉“四化”，专搞“五化”的魏京生们，就受其影响了。 严复和他的同班同学刘步蟾、林泰曾等人，似乎都是一窝“格林威治”。——再插句闲话。在下没钞票也没时间。若有机会去伦敦也住他个把月，我保证可把这批小格林威治们的成绩单，翻它个篓底朝天。没这个机会，就只能和野史馆长摆摆龙门了。设有差错，旅途匆忙执笔，尚乞读者教正之也。 严宗光后来被李鸿章罗致了，去当天津北洋水师学堂总教习。在这学堂里，老严教了个湖北学生叫黎元洪（一八六四～一九二八）。小黎在甲午前二年（一八九二）毕业，被送往德国留学。逾年归来，被分发到刘步蟾当管带的“定远”主力舰上当个“炮弁”。——他如被分发到骑兵部队里去，那就变成“马弁”了。所以炮弁者，马弁之弟兄也。 后来这位黎炮弁又被转战至“广甲”舰。广甲被日舰击沉时，老黎泅水逃生，又干起陆军来。想不到他捡回的小命“贵不可言”。武昌城一声炮响，这位历史反革命加现行反革命，竟被革命军强迫做了革命元勋。其后又做了两任“中华民国大总统”！（他是分两次做的，非“余又任”也。）——读者欲知其详，去看看章太炎那一篇顶刮刮的《黎大总统墓志铭》，价值数千块袁大头的好文章！ 但是他的老师严复就没那个好命了。严复学贯中西（非笔者过誉吧）。他压根儿瞧不起他那个臭官僚土上司李鸿章。鸿章也嫌他古怪，敬而远之。严宗光因而觉得要做官，还得走“正途”考科举。提调不干了，乃“捐”了个监生（秀才），参加福州乡试，想来个“一举成名天下知”，扬眉吐气一下。谁知三考不售．只好卖卖洋文，当当翻译，了其怀才不遇的一生。 再看刘步蟾：刘氏则代表他们同学中，另一个极端。步蟾显然没有严复的文采。但是他在本行学术科的成就可能远超过严宗光。他于一八六七年入伍（且用个现代名词），五年毕业，三年实习期满，一八七四年（日军侵台之年）即由总教习日意格，发具船长证明书，证明他可以独立作一舰之长。这时正是李鸿章要购舰造船买炮，成立新式海军之时，苦无人才。此时步蟾大致二十岁左右（严复刚二十岁），英姿焕发，一下便被李鸿章看中了。步蟾其后留学格林威治，并在英国舰队见习。归国后立刻成为北洋大臣身边的红人——也是理所当然嘛！此后他奉命率队赴欧“接舰”，可能不只一次。一八八一年李氏向德国订购定远、镇远两大主力舰时，步蟾又奉命率十余员工赴德监造。一八八五年船成，又奉命“接舰”返国。未几北洋舰队完成编制，步蟾奉命出任旗舰定远的管带，官阶是总兵（位同今日的师长），地位仅次于提督丁汝昌，为中国海军中的第二号将领。此时刘步蟾年龄不过三十上下。少年得志，意气风发，可想而知。 在千舰易买，一将难求的情况之下，李鸿章对刘亦万般倚重，密奏他才可大用，隐然是将来的提督人选。但鸿章对他也稍有保留，则是因为他们南方子弟，略嫌轻浮。其实这是满清老官僚的成见。须知清末的海军正如民国初年的空军，是一种最时髦、最洋化的兵种。当时的威海卫和旅顺口的海军俱乐部内，酒吧间、弹子房、跳舞厅……，应有尽有，斯时国内闻所未闻也。过这种时髦生活的青年军官，在满清老官僚的眼光中就略嫌轻浮了。 刘步蟾事实上只是他们“马尾一期”同学中一个最突出的例子。与他同时出任镇远管带的林泰曾；出任致远管带的邓世昌；来远管带的邱宝仁；济远管带的方伯谦；威远管带的林颖启等等，都是大同小异的青年军官。总之，他们都是当时中国，受过十年以上，最严格的最现代化训练的海军专才。驾驶这种庞大而复杂的大洋轮，外行是不能领导内行的。而这种内行在当时的大清帝国之内找不出三十人。这三十人却又是一个师父（马尾一期）下山的。李中堂不办新式海军则罢。要办，则所有主要舰长职位就由他们包办了。——顺理成章的事嘛！ 再者，他们既有此相同的背景和友谊，很自然的也就形成了一个帮。对帮之外的外行领导丁汝昌，不用说阳奉阴违；对老李重金礼聘来的外国专家，也就不放在眼里了。在这一心理状态之下，一八九〇年就发生上述的“升旗事件”了。原来丁汝昌于是年率舰访香港。一时因公离舰，旗舰管带刘步蟾乃降下提督旗，改升总兵旗（他自己是总兵），以示他才是一舰之主呢，这时还在船上的琅威理不服，因他自认是大清海军的副提督。有他在船，自应升提督旗。步蟾没理他，官司便打到李鸿章那儿去了。李鸿章来他个是刘而非琅。琅威理大怒乃拂袖而去。英国那时想掌握中国海军，琅氏一去便削弱了英国的影响力。英国再一怒，就不许中国学生进入英国皇家海校就读了。 *原载于台北《传记文学》第六十五卷第二期