Chapter 10 Chapter 8 On "Transition Period" and "Post-Enlightenment"

Humans are one of the animals. According to the classification of "social behavior", animals can be divided into two categories: social animals and non-social animals. Like wasps, ants, swan geese, penguins, pigeons, fur seals, and even horses, cattle, sheep and wolf dogs, etc. all live in groups.They must live together.Individuals are unwilling to live alone unless they are forced to be lured and lose their free will. As for other animals such as ligers, leopards, pandas, even hawks and tortoises, etc., they are non-social animals.Most of them are solitary households, and they do not care about each other except for mating.This is a very interesting but not easy to understand phenomenon found in the study of "animal social behavior" in modern zoology.

Humans are social animals belonging to the former category.In human social life, no individual can truly live alone. Since they live in groups, social animals live in groups.This is called tribal life in the social life of the early people. But human beings are, after all, the "spirits of all things."His genius is that he uses experience to improve his life.Improvement in life isn't just about individuals, it's about entire tribes.Therefore, among the tribes of the early people, they are also divided into good and bad, strong and weak. In addition, human beings are social animals that live in groups, and are relatively obscene in social behavior, and may also be the most obscene.They are cruel and selfish, good at killing and fighting, and they are also lustful without limit.This is not only true among individuals; it is also true among groups.This is not only true between humans and beasts, but also among humans.This is not only true among different races; it is also true among the same race.Primitive religions persuade people to do good, and they also persuade people to behave in this way.

Therefore, modern anthropologists and historians have discovered that the tribal wars among the primitive peoples were endless.The tribes not only do not have the habit of peaceful coexistence, nor do they have the concept of peaceful coexistence.The strong bullying the weak and the many oppressing the few are the basis of their values ​​and the most important part of their way of life.Since the war is endless, there must be winners and losers between each other.There are winners and losers, and there is a difference between ruling and being ruled.In this way, different types of slavery emerged; further, different types of feudalism emerged.

The above are similar phenomena with minor differences that occurred in the primitive society.Because humans are social animals after all.People's "social behavior" has its commonality, so their early social life style has its similarities. But man is "different from beasts" after all.In the long-term process of accumulating more and more complex experiences, "similar in nature but far apart in habits", due to differences in natural environment and cultural traditions, their social development gradually diverges from each other, which cannot be summed up by a single model.

If we look at the form and development of our ancient society, we can see that it has its own special pattern, which is unprecedented in other civilizations. The feudal system formed in our country in the Western Zhou Dynasty was the result of the Mongolian tribe surnamed Ji with stronger force and larger population imposing force on other backward tribes.Duke Wen and Wu of Zhou forced these small tribes to enshrine Zhengshuo and obey the feudal ranks stipulated by the Zhou family. leadership. ——In short, it used semi-independent tribalism as the basic structure of the political society at that time.However, this structure lasted for hundreds of years, after tens of thousands of tribal wars, and the result of mutual annexation, it was impossible to save in the Warring States Period (403-256 BC).After Qin Shihuang flattened the heroes and unified the East Asian continent into a powerful empire, this feudal system based on tribalism completely collapsed.

In order to adapt to the new needs of the new era, Qin people engaged in a nationwide reform and opening up and system reform based on their original more effective and progressive "Qin system".This is what our primary and secondary school history textbooks say, "Abolish feudalism, establish counties and counties; abandon well fields, and open fields".The former is political negotiation and restructuring, while the latter is economic opening, turning public affairs into private interests, and increasing agricultural production according to the law of supply and demand. This is our China—no, it is our East, the foundation of our political and economic system; it is also the first major "transformation" of our social life in our Eastern nation—from the "tribalism" of a higher social animal, Switch to an economic system based on free agricultural production; and a centralized political system with a highly scientific civil service system as the backbone, a universal empire where there is no two suns and no two kings.

Under this new system and new way of life, it continues to unify hundreds of "minorities" who still live in a tribal way.Bring them all into a "melting pot" of mixed nationalities where "books are written in the same way, cars are in the same track, and travel is in the same way", to call them brothers and worship their ancestors together;The boundaries between the various ethnic groups have finally been gradually eliminated, and it is seamless. The concept and practice of the continuous integration of various ethnic groups and the continuous growth of culture, while the way of life and political and economic system remain unchanged, has survived for two thousand years without any decline.More than 200 years ago, Emperor Yongzheng implemented "reform the land and return the natives" to the ethnic minorities in the southwest. Isn't it a continuation of "abolishing feudalism and establishing counties"?Isn't the six "Shanzu Legislators" just elected in Taiwan two weeks ago the latest example of this ethnic integration?

In the early years of the Republic of China, Mr. Sun Yat-sen, who took office as interim president under the "five-color national flag"—each color represents one ethnic group, opposed the concept of "a republic of five ethnic groups" because it did not conform to historical facts.Even if there are still more than 50 "minorities" in China today, isn't the number in the Qin and Han Dynasties more than ten times and a hundred times more? How can the "Republic of Five Races" be summed up? So "China" is not a pure "nation-state" like Britain, France, Germany or Ireland or Ukraine. "Han people" (Chinese in the foreign population) does not refer to a specific ethnic group. "Han" was originally a geographical term, but later developed into the name of a dynasty.Just as "America" ​​was originally the name of one person, it later became the name of two continents in the Western Hemisphere; finally it became a common name exclusively used by "Americans" with hundreds of nationalities.The "Han people" on the East Asian continent back then were just like the "Americans" on the North American continent today. It did not represent a specific ethnic group; it was a common name after the fusion of thousands of ethnic groups.Due to the long-term integration, they finally use a common language, forming the so-called "Chinese nation" today.Just like the "English-speaking people" (English-speaking people) emphasized by the very proud Churchill before and after World War II, it is a cultural phenomenon of "books with the same text".It's just that so far, those "English-speaking people" who are black and white have not really merged into an "English-speaking nation".

My old friend Professor Zhang Sui recently proved that there is no "Jewish nation" in China today.But Professor Zhang also does not deny the history of the Jewish people immigrating to China in the early days.It's just that after thousands of years, the Jewish nation has been seamlessly integrated with the Chinese nation. ——This may be a rare exception in the three thousand years of Jewish immigration history.Under normal circumstances, Jews are rarely assimilated by indigenous peoples.But didn’t the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of the Qin Mausoleum explain that our National Defense Army was already a mixed force of different nationalities two thousand years ago?

Therefore, two thousand years ago, the social "transformation" operation promoted by the Chinese people was originally a spontaneous, social transformation that originated from within the society and had a world-scale transformation.The subjective, objective, inevitable and accidental thousands of genes that promote this transformation are inexhaustible.It is the same as the transformation process of other national societies that occurred in Western Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. of necessity". To be more specific, this great transformation of the oriental national society began with the "Shang Yang Reform" in the middle of the fourth century BC and was completed at the end of the second century BC with the "salt and iron monopoly" implemented by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.Through this transformation, the feudal society was transformed into a "cosmic empire" with a special model of "the state is stronger than the society", and later it became a "stereotype".It has been extended for more than two thousand years, and there has been no fundamental change! ——In the past two thousand years, the rise and fall of dynasties, the division and combination of nations, the ups and downs of culture, the ups and downs of heroes, the rise and fall of production, and the expansion and contraction of commerce... have been ever-changing, and it is beyond description.However, the organizational principles of political economy, the lifestyles of members of all social strata, the thinking logic of ordinary intellectuals, the social basis of ethics and values, etc., which operate within this stereotype, are as stable as Mount Tai, and have not changed at all. .Since the foundation is unshakable, the superstructure of society will remain unchanged even if there are drastic changes.

Let's narrow it down.The "three cardinal principles and five constant principles" that restrict people's social behavior have not only remained unchanged, but are as small as the marriage system of "parental orders", the custom of polygamy, the "three years of filial piety" funeral rituals, and the "three examinations to select scholars" The imperial examinations, the obscure classical Chinese, the five-character and seven-character old-style poems, the performing arts of singing and dancing, the traditional Chinese paintings dominated by ink and wash, the same religious sculptures... and even the painful and moaning foot binding, which one? Isn't it unchanged for a thousand years? The same way of life does not mean that society has not progressed.In fact, in the past two thousand years, in terms of scientific and technological development, for at least one thousand years, "the east wind prevailed over the west wind".Needless to say, China's "Four Great Inventions" are medicine and surgery, porcelain making, silk reeling, and shipbuilding. Until the early modern period, China was leading the world.But technological progress and lifestyle changes are mutually exclusive.Inference from common sense, or based on the historical experience of the white race, the evolution of science and technology will inevitably lead to an increase in productivity; the continuous increase in productivity will inevitably lead to changes in social lifestyles.Hence "capitalism".However, in traditional China where the state was stronger than the society, this power of natural social evolution could not overcome the social inertia that had been institutionalized and deeply rooted in this society.This inertia also limits the development of technology in promoting productivity.On the contrary, it has the reaction of inhibiting productivity and accommodates its unchanging traditional way of life. In other words, the artificially created social inertia sets limits for the natural development of social productive forces; if the natural development of social productive forces has a limit, the productive forces cannot promote qualitative changes in society itself.In this way, the program of social development will go round in circles and remain unchanged for two thousand years.Capitalism will never come out. But then again, what's wrong with "unchanged"?Therefore, our philosophers, thinkers, religionists, and politicians do not feel that there is anything wrong with being unchanged.On the contrary, everyone is dissatisfied with the status quo, but thinks that it is not as good as it used to be, and it has become worse.Utopia and Utopia were established in the Yao and Shun era more than 4,000 years ago, and everyone worked together from inside to outside to create a complete system of oriental culture. ——This cultural system is completely different from "Western Civilization", "Middle Eastern Civilization", "Indian Civilization" and the indigenous civilizations of Africa.They develop separately and have their own characteristics, which cannot be summed up by any simple social model or development formula. However, our model of social development, which has been spinning around in place and unchanged for thousands of years, was suddenly impacted in the middle of the nineteenth century.After the impact, our ancient society, which was "quiet as a virgin", suddenly changed "like a rabbit"-it literally changed every ten years.A change is beyond recognition.The Eighteen Changes of Women's University have changed for at least fifteen changes in one hundred and fifty years.Let’s not talk about the ancient times in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. Let’s just look at the changes in the nature of politics and society on both sides of the Taiwan Strait in the past two decades after the death of Jiang Mao. Slowly talking about the "three changes" is just one change - such as Taiwan's "freedom of speech" and the mainland's "one country, two systems", both are tricks that cannot be changed in traditional China for a thousand years!Readers may not take it seriously, because you are "in this mountain".When we read history books, we were shocked. The two sides of the strait are still changing today!On the mainland, a "socialism with Chinese characteristics" will be transformed, and in Taiwan, a "capitalism without Chinese characteristics" will be transformed...  If you are poor, you will change, and if you change, you will succeed.If it becomes "tong", it can last for fifty years, one hundred years, or even two thousand years without changing.This is the so-called "stereotype".If the change fails, we have to continue to change.History has no bottom!There is plenty of time anyway. ——But as a "Chinese American", we always hope that this "communication" and "stereotype" will come soon. Let me ask another question in turn: Chinese history has never changed for thousands of years!Why once it changes, it changes every ten years and becomes bottomless?Simply put, it is a "bottleneck" problem.Bottlenecks will occur in the development of culture and society.Once the bottleneck is silted up, the development of culture and society, as mentioned in the previous section, can only circle in place and cannot advance.If you never get out of the bottleneck, you will only die of old age, violent death or old age, sickness and prolongation, and slowly dragging on. This process of breaking through the bottleneck is called "breakthrough" in philosophy, and "transformation" in history and sociology—transferring from a certain social model to another in order to continue to develop.But no matter whether it is "breakthrough" or "transformation", both of them have the law of "poorness leads to change".In other words, when a culture or a society is facing collapse, when people’s minds change, it changes.On the contrary, a thriving society, or a condescending, arrogant, and self-satisfied civilization, will not be mediocre, and will take the initiative to seek change.To conceptualize this historical phenomenon, it can be said that the declining culture will change, while the dominant culture will remain unchanged. There are also "quantitative changes" and "qualitative changes" in changes.Quantitative change is "improvement"; qualitative change is "restructuring".There are also cultural reforms and military reforms in the reform.Cultural reform is "reform"; military reform is "revolution".There is also the "one-time revolution theory" of "consummating all achievements in one battle" in revolution; there is also the "multiple revolution theory" of accumulating small revolutions into major revolutions, which is what Sun Yat-sen said, "The revolution has not yet succeeded, and comrades still have to work hard." go down. Try USA Today.The United States is a modern country with cities as its soul.But its soul today has become a bandit den, a drug district, a brothel and a Xianggongtang (same-sex brothel).Its society, an abortion state, has been brought to the brink of collapse by the abuse of individualism.If it cannot carry out a thorough "reform and reform", its "bottleneck" will never break through.But Yankees are too busy defending their "The American Way of Life" these days.Their hippie president is busy with "human rights issues in China" and "tribal issues" in the former Yugoslavia and the Middle East and North Africa.How could they have thought that the "American life" with cold food every day and spring nights at night is in urgent need of "reform and reform"?We foreign bystanders, professors, occasionally tell jokes in the classroom, advocating reform and reform, and black and white students stand up and applaud and cheer, while our native American bosses think you are scaremongering and instigating student riots, To boycott it!Originally!How could a dominant civilization at its peak think that its feasting and feasting had hidden murderous intentions?The bottleneck that the United States cannot change the law and system today is exactly the same as the reason that our country has remained unchanged for two thousand years. Over the past two thousand years, our dynasties have changed, peasants have rioted, the Central Plains has been turbulent, barbarians have invaded, and the common people have been miserable!But our "culture" has never lost its lofty status of arrogance, self-satisfaction, condescension, and disdain for the barbarians. ——Using a cultural term to help explain it, this is called "Sinocentrism".Our "Chinese nation", which is constantly expanding like a snowball, is often beaten to death by the "Siyi" and "Five Hu", and sometimes even blood flows into rivers and corpses are strewn all over the field; our emperor called the rulers of foreign races "father" and "brother".He was captured alive, but he did not hesitate to endure the humiliation, put on the uniform of a waitress, and "drink in green clothes" to the foreign master. But strangely, our "Han-centrism" has never wavered.Didn’t you see that when the Mongols of the frontier ethnic minorities invaded the Central Plains in the 13th century, didn’t they engage in a Mongolian dichromaticism and label the “Han people” as third-class citizens?Not to mention that they put the stinky old nine of the Han nationality who have always "take the world as their responsibility" below the "prostitutes" and above the "beggars" (the so-called "eight prostitutes, nine scholars and ten beggars").But once upon a time, the emperor of the Yuan Dynasty didn't have to open a course to obtain a scholar.Isn't the stinky old nine who is full of civil and military affairs Zhou Gong still "the head of the four peoples"? In short, our traditional concept of centralism that "China" is superior to "Sibari" was sprouted in Gai Yuan during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and intensified after the unification of the Qin and Han Dynasties.Since then, the Han family system has become the common system in the world in the concept of Orientals. ——Everyone takes the social structure and lifestyle of ruler and minister, father and son, rich and poor, high and low, men superior to women, scholars, farmers, businessmen, etc., as a matter of course.It goes without saying that kings, virtuous ministers, ministers and officials do not want to change it, even Huang Chao, a private salt dealer from the oppressed class, Zhu Yuanzhang, a young monk, Li Zicheng, and Zhang Xianzhong, a poor and lower-middle peasant, do not want to change it. ——A resentful daughter-in-law just wants to be a mother-in-law; after becoming a mother-in-law, she abuses her daughter-in-law.Therefore, the development of our traditional society has created a vicious circle between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, a circle that has lasted for two thousand years! Or ask: Why can't mother-in-law and daughter-in-law engage in "freedom and equality", "democracy and the rule of law", and "protection of human rights"? Answer: These concepts of civilization are basically inconsistent with the generality of the social behavior of social animals.Jefferson said: "All men are created equal." In fact, when babies are born, they are divided into wisdom and foolishness, strong and weak, so why are they born equal? Equality is a result first seen in the development experience of Western society, where two social forces compete and compete with each other, resulting in peaceful coexistence and equal coexistence.Only with equality can there be democracy, freedom, human rights, and the rule of law... They all come first from this social experience and then conceptualization. (The author has discussed it in detail in another article, so I won’t repeat it here.) There is a doggerel in our popular joke book that mocks the poet who writes poetry on the wall.The poem said: "The wall is full of farts, why doesn't the wall fall down? There are farts on both sides, so hold on!" Therefore, the so-called "freedom and equality", "democracy and human rights" and the essence of modern civilization are not the warnings of the holy prophets, or the gifts of the holy lord.They are the result of the occasional "two farts supporting each other" in the development of Western society. ——In the past two thousand years, the "state is stronger than society" model developed by our "Han-centrism" has always been a "one-sided" model.It’s just that “one side of the wall has farts”, then a wall of equality will never appear, society will never be “transformed”; the outlook on the universe will never be “broken through”.But in our ancient model, the daughter-in-law will eventually be a mother-in-law one day.A young monk can also be an emperor; a cowherd can also be a champion... and society is not without fairness and reasonableness.Hu Shi said: If you don't feel that you are not free, you will be free.Everyone felt at ease, and had no intention of seeking change. Marx believed that the development of society is the result of changes in the social relations of production, and it is reasonable to say so.But Hegel, Martens' teacher, believed that the collective will of the masses is also sufficient to determine the collective behavior of the masses.By using the wisdom of their master and apprentice, the historians' understanding of our "Han-centrism" that has not changed for two thousand years, although it is not right, is not far away. The above sections explain why our oriental "Han-centrism" view of the universe has not been able to "breakthrough" (breakthrough) for thousands of years; why has the political and economic structure of "the state is stronger than society" and why there has been no "pattern change" (pattern change) for two thousand years? The following will explain why the old system of "thousands of years" in our country suddenly came to "change every ten years" in the middle of the nineteenth century, that is, after the "Opium War" (1839-1842). "? Don’t you see that after the Opium War, less than ten years (1850), Hong Xiuquan, who took all the three monsters of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, appeared; ten years later, in terms of political system, there appeared a foreign ministry that had never existed in two thousand years (1850). Li Hongzhang’s foreign military exercises, Kang Youwei’s constitutional monarchy, the Boxers’ efforts to help the Qing Dynasty (1900), Sun Yat-sen’s establishment of the Republic of China (1911), and Hu Shi’s overall Westernization (1919).Almost every ten years.And every change is a new trick that traditional China has not been able to change for thousands of years. Look at our "old generation" born after the "May 4th Movement" (1919)—as long as we can remember, isn't there a different China every ten years?Let’s look at the 29th (the reunification of the Kuomintang and the civil war), the 39th (the War of Resistance), the 49th (the founding of the People’s Republic of China), the 59th (Great Leap Forward), the 69th (Lin Si Cultural Revolution), the 79th (Third Plenum), and the 8th Nine (six four), nine nine (?). ——It doesn’t change every ten years, and every change is completely different; isn’t every change a new pattern that old China can’t change in a thousand years? An old saying goes: "It is better to be a dog of peace than to be a person in a troubled world." The author's generation was unfortunately born in this troubled world where people are not as good as dogs.Following the times, he turned seven or eight somersaults, and his family was ruined. Still don't know Yiyuhudi?Surviving in China, which one does not have a "difficult scripture to recite", and living overseas as an "American" or "Taiwanese" is not so easy. After learning from the pain, as a Chinese in the modern age, why is it so cold?In a word, we are unfortunately born in the second "transition period" in the history of the Chinese nation, and "change every ten years" is the ladder of transformation!Social transformation is painful and long-term—especially this second transformation.It is not spontaneous and gradual.It is a sudden and violent national and social movement under the oppression of Western imperialism.We were personally involved in this catastrophe and survived.To paraphrase Sichuan dialect, we should also celebrate our "great fate". But this "second transformation" of our society, what kind of "stereotype" should we transfer? Then we have to search for the old roots of Western imperialism that oppresses our transformation.The author does not learn, and does not want to imitate the sages and write another book on Eastern and Western cultures and their philosophies.It is just what has been said in multi-ethnic university classrooms for decades, which can be readily accepted by young people of all ethnic groups, and then briefly stated in Chinese, so as to teach the talents of the country. The ancient white society, which was originally based on tribal life, also tended to be gradually unified under the territory of the Roman Republic, especially the Roman Empire that was at the same time as our Eastern Han Dynasty.Unfortunately, the Roman Empire itself never got rid of the tribal tradition.The Western Roman Empire died internally due to domineering feudal vassals and externally due to barbarian invasion.After the fall of Western Rome, Western Europe was occupied by barbarians (ancestors of the righteous in Britain, France and Germany today). Although these barbarians were finally unified by the Catholic Church, their spiritual life gradually tended to "walk the same line", but in terms of political organization But torn apart.After the ninth century, these primitive tribes began to gradually enter a feudal system similar to that of the Spring and Autumn Period in my country.From the feudal era, they also quickly entered a mutual annexation of the Warring States era.Due to the fierce international competition, the continuous growth of productivity, and the rapid emergence of small and medium-sized cities, they also appeared in the late Warring States period. The phenomenon of "all schools of thought arose and a hundred schools of thought contended" was called the "Renaissance" (130) in Western history. 〇～1600). In all of these, medieval Europe and pre-Qin China have similarities in the process of social development; it's just that Western Europe is more than 1,500 years later than East Asia. However, in the development of "post-feudalism", the east and the west are completely opposite to each other.In the East, we have formed a great empire in which "the state is stronger than the society".We have detoured in this model for more than two thousand years, but failed to break through, as mentioned above.In post-feudal Europe, countless "nation-states" - Yan Zhao Han Wei Qi Chu Qin competed equally, but among their national kingdoms, there was never a Qin Shihuang to level the heroes and unify Europe. At a time when the competition among these nation-states was at its fiercest, their navigation technology also made rapid breakthroughs, enabling Vasco da Gama to bypass the Cape of Good Hope and sail directly to India in 1498, opening the route to Southeast Asia.Columbus also discovered America in 1492.In no time at all, those previously little-known small European pirate countries turned into large colonial empires that colonized and plundered overseas infinitely, naked imperialism that sucked blood and marrow. The unlimited wealth of Asia, Africa and Latin America, as well as the unlimited fertile land, quickly nourished Europe, stimulated production, triggered the industrial revolution, expanded cities, and cultivated a rapidly growing urban middle class.It wants to empty the royal family, reject the church, seize political power, emancipate the mind, and fight for freedom.For the middle-level partners, we must practice democracy and the rule of law, fair competition, and play cards according to reason.For the workers and peasants at the lower level, we should act both kindly and powerful, and prohibit rebellion. ...Soon a "society is stronger than the state" model appeared in Western European countries.Capitalism followed.The cosmology of "Eurocentrism" based on this also includes the world.Everything that contradicts this cosmology is either "barbarian" (barbarian) or "heresy" (paganism).If it is not of its kind, hoe it away.Under this storm, the earth is dominated by "European expansionism". Under this storm, the gate of ancient China was broken open by British opium drug dealers.The "Han-centrism" that is old, feeble and self-important is in direct contact with the menacing and emerging "Eurocentrism". As we all know, once Chinese and Western cultures come into contact, our "Han-centrism" that has been invincible for two thousand years will be destroyed.Therefore, the modern history of China after 1842 is a history of continuous giving way from "Han-centrism" to "Eurocentrism". ——that is, the "transition history" in which the traditional Chinese social model gave way to the modern European social model. Many modern historians, in order to protect the dignity of our nation (in fact, it is just face), call this period of history "the history of China's modernization movement".In fact, the Chinese modernization movement and Westernization movement before the "May 4th Movement" were originally two sides of the same coin. "Westernization" means "modernization"! In the process of "Westernization" that lasted 80 years, the first thing we gave way to the West was the Westernization of science and technology that started with "boat guns".This is also what Wei Yuan (1794-1856) called "the long skills of teachers from barbarians".In the process of modernizing this technology, the ones who did the most hard work, achieved the most success, and failed the most were Li Hongzhang (1822-1901) and his "Northern Navy". However, even before the complete annihilation of the Beiyang Navy (1894), Chinese intellectuals who were well versed in foreign affairs, knowledgeable, and discerning realized that scientific and technological modernization without political modernization would be futile.The best of this group were Zhang Zhidong (1837-1909) and Kang Youwei (1858-1927).But Zhang Zhidong is a cautious old bureaucrat after all.Although he has already seen that "Western art (science and technology) must be important, Western politics is important", but he is unwilling to stand up and vigorously seek political reform.However, Kang Youwei, who was 21 years younger than Zhang, wrote a letter directly to the emperor in 1888, calling for reforms and reforms. Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) in his early years was also a reformist, but as early as four years before the Reform Movement of 1894 (1894), he had already seen that old bottles could not hold new wine.To carry out political reforms, we had to "drive out the Tartars and establish the Republic of China", overthrow the Manchu Qing autocracy, and start over from the ground up. In the late Qing Dynasty, the three political reform experts were more intense than the other; more thorough than the other.It can also be said that "Han-centrism" made concessions to "Eurocentrism", and the more concessions were made.Under the name of Sun Yat-sen, it has become a complete Westernization of the political system and a complete transformation. But the three sages have a common tail—they are unwilling to make a clean break with this ancient "Han-centrism"; What Zhang Zhidong is doing is "learning from the middle school as the body", so there is no need to talk about it.What Kang Youwei advocated was clearly a British model of "constitutional monarchy", but he wanted to use the traditional "Jinwen Confucianism" as a foil to show that the "reform of the law" he was committed to was "to inherit the old sage" and not to change it with the barbarians. summer. Sun Yat-sen was originally the Washington who led us to carry out the Westernization of politics, but he also insisted that he "inherited the orthodoxy of the civil and military Zhou Gong" when he was old.What is the orthodoxy of civil and military Duke Zhou?Three cardinal guides and the five permanent members?Monarch and minister father and son?Men are superior to women?Is there a difference between high and low?Scholars, farmers, businessmen?Divide children into concubines?Married with wives and concubines? ... If it continues like this, how can there be any "Republic of China"? All this does not mean that the "thinking" of our older generation of thinkers is not thorough.There is no such thing as a "thorough thinker"; there is not even a thinker who thinks once and stops thinking.Especially political thinkers, who are the spokesmen of their own time.In the era of the above-mentioned three elders, our society, our "Han-centrism" view of the universe, has not conceded to the Western model to the final stage.The concessions made by the declining culture to the superior culture were originally done step by step, and they would not give in if they could.It will not be forced to the point where it is impoverished, its scum is sold out, and it is invulnerable. Its "opposite" can only be destroyed.It cannot make an effective rebound. To use a dialectic term from Hegel and Engels, a "positive" (unity, thesis) puts pressure on an "antithesis" (opposite, antithesis), and this "antithesis" can only issue effective results when it is invulnerable. Rebound, combined with "positive" to produce a "new unity" (synthesis). Let me give you the most specific example.Kang Youwei, the most radical thinker who advocated Western learning in the late Qing Dynasty, had six wives and concubines himself.Having wives and concubines is justifiable in the "Han-centrism" and Confucianism.But under the challenge of the "Eurocentrism" of a dominant culture, this new character is a heretic and a barbarian who behaves like a beast.Sun Yat-sen later gave in to this Western challenge to the end.Only by making concessions to the end can we make an effective rebound against the AIDS-ridden Western society in terms of sexual morality and marriage system, and let the east wind overwhelm the west wind. ——This is a later story. Therefore, my country's social transformation movement in the past 150 years—whether you call it "Westernization" or "modernization"—has shown a clear "phased phase", starting from technological reform and progressing to Restructuring of the political system; from the idea of ​​a constitutional monarchy to the practice of implementing the parliamentary government through the "1911 Revolution".Every stage has progress, big or small, overt or covert (it can also be said to be more and bigger concessions to "Eurocentrism").Of course, there are also superficially large or small countercurrents, which make people feel that "the Republic of China is not as good as the Qing Dynasty." However, these small stages of ten-year change are transitional.Since it is transitional and has no attributes of eternity or long-term existence, each stage of development must end in failure.This also explains the basic reason why there have been countless "failed heroes" in our country in the past 150 years.But this kind of failure with obvious stages and progress is also the gene that triggers and promotes the next stage of development.It goes on and on like this, moving forward stage by stage.Poorness leads to change, change leads to success, and finally pushes into its "final stage", where hundreds of rivers converge into the sea, and a "stereotype" that remains unchanged for a hundred years, or even a thousand years, has developed.Only after the "stereotype" of "although it can be known for a hundred generations" is formed, can Chinese civilization recover its lost "advantage"; can it effectively "rebound" to the existing Western civilization, and push the history of all mankind into its "The Post Western Era". Is the author making this lie because of the pride and self-confidence of a "master of Chinese studies" who thinks that Chinese civilization is the best in the world?No.It's just that this "transformation" in our Eastern society has been going on for 150 years.One hundred and fifty years of experience has accumulated enough data for us.Just based on the existing data to see the "past" clearly, a social scientist does not need much training in "mathematical matrix analysis" (mathematical matrix analysis), and can also calculate the "future" based on it.抟（？～九八九）、邵雍（一〇一一～一〇七七）那样去寻找超自然的象数了。 要言之，我国近一百五十年的“西化”（现代化）过程里，一九一九年发生的“五四运动”应该是个分水岭。五四之前我们的现代化运动的重点是“汉族中心主义”向“欧洲中心主义”被迫让位的问题。迨“五四”前后“新文化运动”发生了，我们这个“让位”过程已在文化上一让到底——是所谓“打倒孔家店”也；是所谓“全盘西化”也。所以五四之后，已经不是应否西化的问题，而是如何西化和选择那样西化的问题了。“新文化运动”原是个“启蒙运动”，则继之而来的便是“启蒙后”的问题了。 “全盘西化”之初次提出是惊世骇俗、全国哗然的，但是它也是势如破竹，当者披靡。读者今日可能尚有不服的。但是阁下与我都不妨对镜自窥，你我除掉黑眼球、黄皮肤之外，我们上自网球帽，分装发；下及洋袜、皮鞋，我们身上还有哪一点没有“西化”？西化原是个生活方式。试问我们自早晨起床，刷牙漱口，上班上学，到晚上看电视、穿睡衣上床；除掉拿筷子吃饭之外，我们的传统生活方式，还剩下几两？西化是个价值观念，是一种文化心态和教育内涵。读者试思，我们从九年国教到四年大学，我们学了一身本领，有几项本领是来自传统国故？有几项不是来自西方？我们连中国语文的教学，都彻底西化了。 朋友，吾日三省吾身——我们的生活和思想，至今还有几项没有西化？呜呼哀哉，我们都早已“全盘西化”了。只是其来者渐，我们都不知不觉罢了——这种全盘西化的过程，只是五四以后的一代，才心服口服的啊！但是站在五四这个分水岭上，左手承先、右手启后来推动这项全盘西化的“启蒙大师”，我们就不能不公推胡适为首了。 胡适（一八九一～一九六二）在这一阶段中的贡献，盖可归纳之为两大“突破”： 第一，他突破了孔孟和儒家在“汉族中心主义”中所制造的瓶颈，而使“独崇儒术”恢复到先秦时代，群经与诸子平等的地位。这也就是把董仲舒以后，二千年来“被扭转的历史再扭转过来”。是一种文艺复古、文艺复原的文化运动。须知欧洲“文艺复兴”（Renaissance）的原义就是文艺冲开中世纪教会所制造的枷锁，而复希腊罗马之古啊！What can't be broken can't be built.现代的欧洲文明之崛起，“文艺复兴”实在是第一炮。胡适所领导的“中国文艺复兴”（The Chinese Renaissance），高唱“整理国故、再造文明”，在现代中国所发生的作用，也正是如此。 第二，胡适更进而突破了“汉族中心主义”这项自我束缚的民族文化的瓶颈，而代之以“欧洲中心主义”的宇宙观。要中国民族文化的领导地位干脆让给洋人，以夷变夏。这是一桩放开小我，提高理智，极其大胆的“启蒙运动”（The Enlightenment）；也是那原先发自十八世纪巴黎的欧洲启蒙运动之延续。欧洲的启蒙运动是文艺复兴末期，科学知识大跃进的结果。在新兴的科学（尤其是物理学、天文学、生物学和人类学）光彩照耀之下，那原先的“造物主”（Creator）上帝的权威，整个动摇了。 可是上帝是今日所谓“西方文明”的总根；是白种民族安身立命不可一日或缺的精神源泉。上帝一旦不见了，则整个社会都要惶惶如丧家之狗，如何得了呢？所以他们在十八世纪这个所谓“理智时代”（The Age of Reason），要把上帝、大自然和人类文明中新近才被解放出来的“理智”（reason）作个适当时安排。三造和平共存，相安无事，一个史无前例、光彩辉煌的近代西方文明，就在历史上出现了。 胡适所领导的中国启蒙运动，也正是如此。它不是受科学发展的影响，而是受西方优势文明挑战的结果。在占绝对优势的西方文明挑战之下，我们那至高无上的孔老夫子的权威，也整个动摇了。 孔二先生那个孔家老店，搞垄断贸易，已搞了两千多年，把我们消费者压惨了，所以胡适要率领红卫兵“打倒孔家店”。朋友，你纵使是国学大师，你说孔家店不该打倒？你纵是神学大师，在新兴的“进化论”的科学论证之前，你还要坚持“人是上帝造的”？ What can't be broken can't be built.旧的不去，新的不来。不把孔家店打个稀巴烂，新的思想便无法生根。新的西方学理，就引不进来。 “胡老师，本位文化真的就一无是处？”他的不疑处有疑的学生不免要怀疑一下。 “哪个民族，能丢得掉他们的本位文化？” 真的，十八世纪的欧洲丢不掉“上帝”；二十世纪的中国能丢掉孔子？把孔家老店要不顾一切彻底的破坏掉？孙中山不也说过“破坏难于建设”吗？打倒孔家店，只是个反托拉斯的运动，并不是要毁灭孔子。 果然，旧文化、旧思想，落荒而去。 新文化、新思想，就随著新的文化传播工具（语体文）排山倒海而来！ 去岁余访沈阳“帅府”，见壁上斗大金字，歌颂张少帅是“千古功臣”。这就是《汉书》上所说的“曲突徙薪者无恩泽；焦头烂额者为上客”的标准例子了。焦头烂额的张学良，怎能比得上曲突徒薪的胡适之呢？ 若论共产主义在中国之兴起，“千古功臣”应该是毛泽东的老师胡适之啊！ 可是胡适对他自己在文化发展上所作出的成绩，和历史发展中所负的责任，却一辈子也未弄清楚。他一会儿西化，一会儿现代化，一会儿又是世界化。说了数十年，说得不知所云。 记得四十年前，余尝把大陆上批胡之作，一篇篇地携往胡氏公寓，灯下与老师共读之，其乐融融。那些批胡之作虽多半都是“打差文章”，但亦不乏真知灼见的杰作。那时我尚年轻，遇有可诵者，我即以老师不牵鼻子之矛，以攻老师被牵鼻子之盾，和他认真辩难。适之先生为笔者所亲炙的最有容忍风度的前辈。但是他也是一位有七情六欲的老先生；我们师徒所见亦每有不同，而我学习的态度又十分认真——不被说服，即不愿苟同。所以有时老师也有几分恼火。他不喜欢一个学生，为一个有真知灼见的批胡者助阵嘛——这也是胡师很可爱而不矫情的地方。 Originally!一位开创宗派和山门的思想家、哲学家和宗教家像孔子、老子、墨子、释迦、苏格拉底、耶稣、穆罕默德、马克思、杜威等等，他们成佛作祖，往往都是无意间得之；甚或出诸百分之百的偶然。他们生前也往往不知道自己“一辈子在搞些什么”？这句话就是适之先生亲口告诉我的“夫子自道”。老实说，这也是我这位弟子在“夫子自道”中，所发现的百分之百的真理。 耶稣这个小犹太牧羊仔，生前哪知道他死后合搞出个那么伟大的宗教来；两千年后他的生日派对，还那样风光？穆罕默德根本是个文盲，造反有理，当了皇帝。但是他又怎知道他那些文盲之言，后来竟成为穆斯林文化的总根呢？ 以上所说的是宗教。再看比宗教更有力量的马克思。马老在一八八三年入土之前，就抵死不承认他是个“马克思主义者”。今日世界上伟大的马克思主义者，年老了，动不动就说他要去见马克思。真要见了马克思，可要当心老马的拐杖呢！ 总之，成佛作祖的思想家、宗教家，都是圣之时者也。他们是站在各自时代的尖端的智者和贤者。按照时代的需要，以言教身教来推动或逆转他存身的社会发展。但是他们思想和信仰的成长的程序都是复杂的；他们思想的效验与影响亦有赖于历史前进中的长期实证，因此水清无大鱼，人类历史上任何宗教和文化的巨人，其思想体系都是朦胧难辨的。他一旦捐馆，弟子信徒和新仇旧怨，就各是其是，各非所非。因此儒分为八，墨别为三，佛有十宗，回有两派，耶有百种，马有千家了。 胡适这位中国近代思想史上，最有影响力的思想家，也跳不出此一通例，因此当他在逐渐向历史海洋下沉的今日，他的思想体系、学术贡献、影响大小、功过何在，也早就言人人殊了。 而今而后，批胡者固早有百家之先例；而研胡继胡者，各觅师承，也寻之不尽了。 再者任何思想家都是主观的；都具有强烈的排他性。不患不知人，患不己知也。因此他对他自己思想的历史背景很难有客观的认识；他对他自己加于将来社会的影响，也绝对不能逆料。——胡适也是如此！ 举个切实的例子来说吧：胡适言必称杜威，称了一辈子，为什么结果在中国反搞出个列宁来了呢？这是他所不能逆料，也不能提出合理解释的地方。但却是我们今日要提出的“启蒙后”（Post - Enlightenment）的问题了。 须知我国历史上第二次社会大转型（从中世纪的东方农业社会的型态，转向现代西方工商业的社会型态），实始于一八四二年〈南京条约〉之签订。但是你可知道〈南京条约〉签订后的六年，一八四八年，欧洲又出了个〈共产党宣言〉（The Comunist Manifesto）？ 〈共产党宣言〉意味著什么呢？〈共产党宣言〉的发表是“欧洲中心主义”分裂的开始。远在文艺复兴的初年（一三〇〇以后）和宗教改革的高潮（一五二〇），欧洲的文化与思想，区域性已十分显著。在十九世纪中期欧洲中心主义开始分裂时，多少也是按老区域划线的。 不幸的是当欧洲文明日趋分裂之时，也正是我们中国西化运动逐渐加深之日。结果呢，就在我们决定搞全盘西化之时（一九一九的五四运动），也正是他们彻底分裂之日（一九一七的十月革命）。 试问我们搞“全盘西化”的启蒙大师们（胡适和陈独秀都是），现在“西化”一分为二，你们也只能搞“半盘西化”了，你搞哪一半呢？ 胡适选择了杜威。 陈独秀选择了列宁。 两位老友分道扬镳，《新青年》也就变质了，“启蒙后”中国也就一分为二，“一国两制”了。——一国两制是从一洲两制开始的。 所以“一国两制”不是邓小平发明的呢！它是胡、陈二公根据“一洲两制”首先搞起的。只是胡、陈的模式是个你死我活的模式：“既生瑜、何生亮”的模式。邓公的模式则是个和平共存，“你死我做和尚”的模式罢了。 朋友，不是瞎说吧！七十年来的中国悲喜剧，便是列宁的“半盘西化”和杜威的“半盘西化”在中国斗争的结果。一九四九年列宁把杜威打败了。这项胜利的代价，据中国之友的史诺先生所作的最低估计是人头六千万颗啊！其后三十年发生在大陆上各项政治运动，还不是解放前“一国两制”斗争的延续？只是到一九七八年“三中全会”之后，邓公才把这桩“扭转了的历史，再扭转回来”。 胡适之和陈独秀搞一国两制，一分为二，分了七十年。如今在邓氏指导之下地下相逢，又可以合二为一，再办其启蒙后的《新青年》了。 近十五年来，海峡两岸社会转型的速度是惊人的啊！按我们在海外所能读到的数据，十五年前从零开始，大陆上的私营企业中，个体户今已增至一千四百万单位；集体户亦有六百万之多。其他如外贸的发展和总生产的累积，人均收入的提高，都是史无前例的。 笔者在资本主义国家教授资本主义历史，前后凡四十年，如今翻翻陈旧的教科书，对比一下手头崭新的数据，我还没有发现先进的资本主义国家曾经有过像今日大陆上经济发展的规模和速度呢！我应该告诉我的学生们，这是“有中国特色的社会主义”呢？还是“有中国特色的资本主义”呢？按社会科学的定义，它应该是后者。按政治经济学发展的远景来看，则二者都无不可。 但是如此发展下去，中国就不姓“社”了吗？No.君不见美国在十九世纪末季的“镀金时代”（The Gilded Age）搞了一段很短的金权政治之后，一进入本世纪，它的资本主义就开始修正了？二次大战后，美国已吸收了社会主义国家许多主要的优良制度，而成为世界上最大的福利国家。美国将来的问题是在社会道德之崩溃，和法律制度之瓶颈。它自动调节的经济制度，无膏肓之疾也。 所以按照市场经济的规律发展，大陆经济如不节外生枝，则问题不大，而且顺利发展，必能合二为一，融社资于一制；拉平沿海与宝岛的差距，而引导两岸的政治合流。 台湾今日“金权政治”的发展，原是一百年前美国“镀金”的模式。等到黄金不能左右选票时，它就会烟消云散。 因此今日海峡两岸的前途多半仍决定在大陆。大陆如经济与政治平衡发展，则一百五十年来的“转型运动”，很快就会合二为一，进入“最后阶段”。制度出现“定型”，则百年盛世，东风压倒西风，也是预料中事，不算是什么奇迹了。 不过，将来社会的定型，今日在地平线上虽已颇见端倪，但是历史发展毕竟因素繁多，中途转向，再兜几十年的圈子，也不算意外。只是当前两岸掌舵者能多一分远见，少一分私心，则最后十里应该不难渡过。只是行百里者半九十，翻车多在家门前，究不应掉以轻心罢了。 本篇之作的原始动机，是为吾友欧阳哲生教授的大著《胡适思想研究》，写篇序文。如今下笔万言，未提欧阳一宇，岂非离题千里哉？笔者之所以如此做者，正是看中吾之小友这篇论文的重要性，所以才不愿草率下笔，敷衍了事。 我个人觉得，胡适思想研究，今日在海峡两岸既已逐渐解禁，按照压力愈大、弹力愈大的力学通则，它今后必成显学无疑！杜甫大师说得好：“汝曹身与名俱灭，不废江河万古流！”胡适是中国文化史上照耀古今的巨星，岂是暗探特务所能禁绝得了的。 但是“胡适研究”这门显学，在下世纪的发展，又有个什么样的趋势呢？ 记得往年胡公与在下共读海峡两岸之反胡文学时（那时在大陆上叫做“反动学术”；台湾叫做“毒素思想”），胡氏未写过只字反驳，但是也未放过一字不看。他看后篇篇都有意见。只是当时没有袖珍录音机，我没有把话录下就是了。大体说来，他对那比较有深度的文章的概括批评，是“只知其一、不知其二”。 胡适是位很全面的通人兼专家。他的专家的火候往往为各专业的专家所不能及。所以各行专家如只从本行专业的角度来批胡，那往往就是以管窥豹、见其一斑。只知其一、不知其二，就为通人所笑，认为不值一驳了。 最糟的还是胡适死后，他的遗嘱执行人年老怕事，任人乱挑学术大梁、妄下雌黄，不特使佛面蒙尘，也把个活生生的博士班导师，糟蹋成“春香闹学”里的学究，实太可惜。 这些都是文化史上的不幸，今后不会再发生了。可是新兴的胡学又将何择何从？ 有一次在他公寓里，我记得胡氏兴致甚好，向我大谈民国政治。他表示对“民初国会”之失败深为惋惜。因为那些议员“都是了不起的人才”。他又对国民党没听他话去“一分为二”，表示遗憾。否则中国当时不就有两党制了吗？ 听后，我嬉皮笑脸的反驳他说：“胡老师呀！您提倡的抽象学理，无一不对；您所作的具体建议，则无一不错。” 胡公闻言颇为光火，大骂我“胡说、胡说”。但他还是留我晚餐，餐后还和我这位学生清客聊到半夜。 我当时所说的虽是冒犯座师的一句戏言，但是四十年后反刍之，则觉学生之言，未始没有三分哲理。盖“抽象学理”每多出于智慧，可于参禅打坐中求之；而“具体建议”若无长期“实验”安知疗效。这原是“实验主义”之精义嘛！ 至若“多谈问题，少谈主义”之实验主义的抽象学理，岂非“黑猫白猫”哉？微黑猫白猫，焉有今日一千四百万之个体户？ 余访大陆城乡，闻工农传语，今日之“万元户”只算“贫农”；小康者以十万元起码也。今岁春节，举国爆竹喧天、锣鼓动地，恭禧发财，万众欢腾，真是黑猫白猫不出，如苍生何？但是黑猫宗，实胡学之正宗也。邓子之徒或有异言曰：吾党“有中国特色之社会主义”也，与胡适河有？曰：无伤也。“有中国特色的社会主义”还不是“有中国特色的资本主义”？两者究有什么区别？申韩法家岂非儒生荀卿之徒？儒法既是一家；国共又何分轩轾。分久必合，此其时矣。 以上所说的实是石破天惊的胡学回潮的大事，然究系有质无名。可是有实有名的胡适研究亦已在大陆每一地区崭露头角，而这一新阵容竟以青少年为主。盖大陆上老一辈的胡学家已所余无几，而五四以后出生的中生代知识分子，则成长于一个“大陆不知胡适，台湾不知鲁迅”的沙漠时代。他们虽经恶补，亦难知三昧。盖胡周二人在此时期都被曲解。去其脸谱，重识真面目，至不易也。可是出生于胡适死后（一九六二）的这个新生代的中国知青，就不同了。他们有自由意志、安定环境和求知的欲望和训练。他们如今阵容之大，排山倒海而来的声势之猛，真使老辈瞠目结舌。一个新的中国文艺复兴和启蒙运动，正山雨欲来。一种很快就要向西方倒流的东方新文化，正在起步。此非笔者哗众取宠；实是在大洋三岸兜了几十转的实际心得！试看大陆上的社会科学院一处即有研究人员六千人。生活虽苦，个个都在孜孜不倦，埋头钻研。统治者如停止文字狱，对学术自由不加干扰（现在差不多已是如此），让他们各自成家，那还得了！我辈偷生海隅，老大徒伤悲的陈腐高知，面对此一阵容，真有滴水被卷入钱塘巨浪之感。——这也是我对我的小友欧阳哲生博士特别看重的道理之一。 欧阳还是一位年未而立的青年，但是他这本优秀的博士读文已使他超迁而升任至少三十七岁始能担任的副教授。前年在两岸胡学论文竞赛中，竟然在胡学老巢的台北也压倒群雄，高挂榜首。我们算是有缘，在海外一次胡适思想研讨会上不期而遇。读其文、执其手、观其人、听其言；一表青年俨然又是一位小胡适。 哲生要我替他行将出版的博士论文写篇序。我虽是个无事忙，也自觉不能不从命。哲生是他们这一代（胡适逝世后才出生的这一代），以自由意志而研究胡适，我所认识的第一人。他这本书也是他们这一代扎扎实实的第一本书。作者今后至少还有六十年的著作时间。十本八本更有分量的专著会接踵而来。在他背后，我也知道更会有几百几千和他类似的青年学者，相率出现。在他们推动之下，胡适学将有一番光辉灿烂的新天地。对他这本处女作作锦上添花的推崇或吹毛求疵的批评，都是不必要的。重要是他这第一本书，在这个启蒙后胡适学中所占的位置。因而我不想写一篇无关痛痒的序文。我想趁此机缘来谈谈我们这一辈对胡适的看法——胡适的出现是有个什么样的时代和文化的背景；在这一时代和文化的背景之中，他又起了些什么作用，把中国文明又推向另一个新时代。 胡适是个很全面的人。各人从各种不同的角度去观察他，他是“横看成岭侧成峰”的。我只是提出我的看法以就教于方家，尤其希望青年的这一代的朋友们能对拙见有所匡正，那就是抛砖引玉了。