Chapter 16 Chapter 12 The Second Century BC

The unified Western Han Dynasty was luckier than the Qin Dynasty, and even luckier than the Western Chu Kingdom. Although its bottleneck crisis dragged on for a long time, it finally passed safely.However, the newly emerging Hun Khanate in the north suddenly became the biggest threat to China, causing the Chinese Empire to be humiliated.However, in the middle of this century, after China's weakened situation improved, it turned to counterattack and seized the largest arable land of the Huns Khanate, the Hexi Corridor, controlled the Western Regions, and contacted more foreign countries.Therefore, the Western Han Dynasty and China became synonymous. Chinese people were called Han people and Han nationality, Chinese characters were called Chinese characters, and Chinese language was called Hanyu.

However, this century has also begun an important transformation, a transformation that is quiet and unobtrusive.The Confucian school used political power to eliminate all the academic thoughts of various schools of thought, and Confucian thought became the only legal orthodox thought of the Chinese people.Its influence cannot be seen in this century, but over time, the imagination and spirituality of the Chinese people have been gradually dominated by this single and conservative thought until the 20th century, which lasted for more than two thousand years. The rise of the Hun Khanate in the desert

When the Western Han Dynasty completed the unification in mainland China, the Xiongnu tribe also completed the unification in Mobei. Touman, the chief of the Xiongnu tribe, was a rough man. His first wife gave birth to a son, Modun, and his second wife gave birth to a young son.Loving the second wife and the youngest son are the unique feelings of the elderly, so Touman planned to pass on the position of chief to the youngest son, so he sent Modun to the Kingdom of Yuezhi (Zhangye, Gansu) as a hostage.After Maodun left, the cruel father immediately sent troops to attack the Yuezhi, hoping that the Yuezhi Kingdom would kill the hostages in a fit of rage.Mao Dun sensed his father's trick, and immediately snatched the good horse and fled.The father probably regretted it a little, and at the same time thought that his son was very courageous, so he gave him a part of the tribe, but Mo Dun hated his father to the bone.

Not long after, Mao Dun invented a sounding arrow that can make a sound when shooting—the pickaxe. He ordered his subordinates to say: "Pay attention to the sounding arrow. You will shoot whatever the sounding arrow shoots. If you don't shoot it, you will be executed." It was originally used in hunting. Go up, after the arrows are shot out, if you find anyone who has not followed, kill them immediately.Once, Mao Dun shot his own horse with a loud arrow, and any subordinates who dared not follow him shot them immediately.Once again, Mao Dun shot his own wife with a loud arrow, and his subordinates who dared not follow him shot him immediately.After some time, Chandun shot his father's mount with loud arrows, and his subordinates dared not follow suit.Modun knew that he had successfully trained, so in the last year of the last century (the first three years), in 201 BC, Modun shot his father with loud arrows, and Touman died under his son's random arrows.Mao Dun killed his stepmother and younger brother at the same time, declared himself "Shan Yu" ("head of state" in the Huns), and established the Huns Khanate.

——Our definition of "Khanate" is: the head of state and the central government are mobile, that is, a country without a fixed capital.In Chinese history books, it is called "Xingguo", and the temporary seat of the head of state and the central government is called "Wangting". Under the rule of Modu, the Xiongnu Khanate expanded in all directions, reaching the Liaodong Peninsula in the east, the Western Regions (Xinjiang) in the west, and taking back the Hetao area taken by the Qin Dynasty in the south.The area was larger than the territory of China at that time.Then they declared that they were descendants of the Xia Dynasty in China, so China also had a share of them, so as to launch aggression against China.This was the beginning of the persevering invasion of China by the northern peoples.

Since the rise of the Huns Khanate, China's foreign aggression in the next two thousand years has almost always come from the north.Just as the Germanic barbarians persevered in their invasion of the Roman Empire, the wealth of the south was an irresistible temptation for the nomads in the cold and desolate areas.Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Western Han Dynasty, could not bear this kind of aggression. In the first year (200 BC) of this century (2 BC), he took advantage of the prestige that had just defeated Xiang Yu and unified China, and personally led an army to attack the Xiongnu.The two rising powers met, and the Chinese army was defeated. Liu Bang was surrounded and almost captured in Baideng (East of Datong, Shanxi).

At this time, Lou Jing, a politician, suggested to Liu Bang a peace policy, advocating that the Chinese princess be married to Shan Yu. He said: "China is very tired and cannot fight against the Huns Khanate. Mao Dun Shan is a patricide murderer He knows nothing but force. The only way to subdue him is to marry a Chinese princess to him, and the dowry must be rich. You can't fight against your father-in-law. In the future, the son born to the princess will succeed Shan Yu, so China's nephew and grandson, China is his uncle and grandfather, and the nephew and grandson can't fight against his uncle and grandfather." Liu Bang was overjoyed and immediately ordered his only daughter, Princess Lu Yuan Divorced and married far away, although Liu Bang's wife Lv Zhi kept crying and couldn't make the trip, Liu Bang still chose a daughter of the royal family (unfortunately, we don't know the name of the first married girl in Chinese history, The whereabouts of her after marrying her), she was named a princess, and sent to the Huns Khanate, of course, a dowry that was enough to tempt the Huns was indispensable.

——The kinship policy has since become a major magic weapon for China to deal with barbarians. Except for the Song and Ming dynasties in the tenth and fourteenth centuries, they have continued to use this magic weapon.There is a very strange phenomenon that any era in which peace policy is used is an era in which China is powerful.Any era that rejects the kinship policy is an era of China's weakness.This should be caused by inferiority complex. Liu Bang died in 195 BC, and his son Liu Ying succeeded to the throne. Liu Ying's mother, Lv Zhi, took power as the empress dowager.Lu Zhi is an outstanding female politician, but Mao Dun Shanyu neither saw China in his eyes, let alone the empress dowager.In 192 BC, Mao Dun Shanyu wrote a teasing letter to Lu Zhi, saying: "I heard that you died a man, and I happened to die a woman, so I can take you as my concubine. China, become one family." Although Lu Zhi vomited blood angrily, he had no choice but to reply: "I am too old to serve you, and I am willing to replace you with a young princess." This was the peak of the Hun Khanate's power.

The Practice of Erdaoism——Politics of Huang Lao The unscrupulous humiliation of the Xiongnu Khanate against China was because it saw that China had no strength to resist.The reason why China has no strength to resist is that the population is sparse and the people are poor. Although the war between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu was short, the killings were very heavy.When Liu Bang fled from Baideng to Quni (Shunping, Hebei) in the first year of this century (the first two years), that is, in 200 BC, he praised the greatness of the city of Quni and said: "Majestic, I have been to many places. Among the places, only Luoyang and here are the most prosperous." Qu Ni had only 5,000 households at that time (30,000 households in the Qin Dynasty), and each household had an average of five members, but only 25,000 people.Qu Ni was a thousand kilometers away from the main battlefield of the Central Plains, and even so, the tragedy of the main battlefield of the Central Plains can be imagined.Therefore, the greatest political need at that time was to increase population and increase production.After Liu Bang failed, he could not fight back. Lu Zhi was teased by Mao Dun and still had to beg for mercy, because China did not have enough military and financial resources.The Taoist school believes that this goal can only be achieved by not interfering with the people.Just like a sapling, if you don't have to pull it up every day, not only will it not help it grow, but it will kill it.As long as you leave it alone, it will thrive naturally.This theory was accepted by Prime Minister Cao Shen and put into practice.

After Liu Ying succeeded to the throne, Prime Minister Xiao He died, and Cao Shen succeeded him.Cao Shen applied the Taoist school's doctrine of tranquility and inaction to complex political reality.He acted in accordance with the rules set by Xiao He, and did not make any improvements. Anyone who suggested improvements to him, he would invite that person to drink, and he was so drunk that he could not speak.Cao Shen's attitude aroused Liu Ying's reproach, so he asked Liu Ying: "How is your talent compared to your father?" Liu Ying said: "Not as good." Cao Shen asked again: "How is my talent compared to Xiao He?" Ying said: "It seems not as good." Cao Shen said: "That's right, the laws and regulations set by the two of them, we who are not as good as them, how can we seek performance and change at will." Liu Ying had to support his approach .

After Liu Ying's death, his son Liu Gong succeeded to the throne. He was poisoned to death by his grandmother because of a conflict with his grandmother Lu Zhi, and Liu Hong, another son of Liu Ying, succeeded to the throne.In 180 BC, Lu Zhi died and a coup took place. General Zhou Bo beheaded Lu Zhi's family and party members.Liu Hong was abolished, and among Liu Bang's many sons, the 23-year-old Prince Liu Heng was chosen to succeed him.History has proved that this choice was wise, and it was even more fortunate for the Western Han Dynasty.Although Liu Heng is very young, he is sincere and humble, without any flamboyant temper.His wife, Empress Dou, believed in Taoism. She ordered her son Liu Qi and other princes to read Laozi and invite books. Under the influence of his wife, Liu Heng also became an enthusiastic supporter of Taoism. He received three lessons from Li Er's thought: "First, kindness; second, diligence and thrift; third, what others have not done , don’t do it.” Liu Heng’s personality combined with his political beliefs enabled him to achieve these three points.During his reign, the torture of cutting off the nose and feet was abolished, and the nobles were especially appeased. People over the age of eighty were rewarded, and the national land tax was often exempted.Sometimes Liu Heng even wore straw sandals to the palace. The clothes worn by his most beloved concubine, Mrs. Ji Shen, did not use the popular mopping style, because the mopping style cost more fabric.Once he wanted to build a palace, and the budget required two thousand taels of gold. He said: "This is the property of ten middle-level families." He didn't build it.After his son Liu Qi came to the throne, he continued to pursue the stability of the status quo under the presidency of his mother, Empress Dowager Dou.This is the famous "Huang Lao politics", which lasted for forty years from the 1920s to the 1950s. As a result of the implementation of Huang Lao politics, the population has increased significantly, and so has the social wealth.The warehouses in all counties are full.The warehouse directly under the central government has too much grain stored, which leads to rot.There is also too much money saved, which has never been used. The ropes of a series of money (there is a square hole in the ancient Chinese coins used to pass through the ropes) have been eaten by moths.Compared with the 1900s and 1910s of this century (the first two years), historians praised the achievements of Huang Lao politics in the past forty years as "the rule of Wen and Jing" (Liu Heng was called Emperor Wen, and Liu Qi was called Emperor Jing).After the 1960s, China launched a series of wars against aggression and development, and most of its military expenditure relied on the rich reserves accumulated over the years. However, the biggest shortcoming of Huang Lao politics is that it makes the rich richer and the poor poorer; the strong stronger and the weak weaker.Especially later, when the population increased and the arable land decreased, the nobles and rich peasants merged a large number of self-cultivating farmers under the government's non-intervention protection policy, forming a huge landlord class.The fields of the rich stretch as far as the eye can see, but the poor don't even have a place to set up an awl. Three Seven Kingdoms Rebellion When Huang Lao was in politics, the Seven Kingdoms Rebellion occurred. The division of administrative regions in the Western Han Dynasty adopted the coexistence system of "county" and "country".At that time, people believed that the Zhou Dynasty died because of enfeoffment, while the Qin Dynasty died because of no enfeoffment—if there were many feudal states and royal strongholds everywhere, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang would not start a prairie fire.The Western Han Dynasty took a compromise approach. On the one hand, it still retained the county system of the Qin Dynasty, and on the other hand, it also restored the enfeoffment system of the Zhou Dynasty.Let us use the following table to explain——the feudal kingdom of a king governs several counties or dozens of counties, and its status is higher than that of a county. After Liu Bang became the emperor, in principle, the children of the royal family were named kings, and the meritorious officials who were not from the royal family were named marquises.Liu Bang didn't pay much attention to Fenghou, but because "Fengwang" has his own government and his own army, he attaches great importance to it.He specially killed a white horse, and brazenly ordered the minister to swear to the Lord: "If the surname is not Liu but becomes the king, the people of the world will attack him together." centrifugal phenomenon.The legacy of Su Qin and Zhang Yi in the Warring States Period is still there. Intellectuals and talented people, unable to fulfill their ambitions in the central government, often defected to the feudal state.Fengguo has both strength and theoretical guidance, so the desire is increasing day by day, and the centrifugal force is increasing day by day. This phenomenon was discovered by many people, one of whom was Chao Cuo, the prime minister of Liu Qi.Chao Cuo strongly advocated reducing the size of the feudal state and reducing the power of the feudal king.Liu Qi agreed with this approach, but those princes who were already big enough were of course unwilling to accept it.Therefore, after the vigorous and resolute reduction of the three feudal states, in the first 154 years, the seven feudal states in the east sent a joint rebellion.The seven feudal states are: The relationship between the kings of the Seven Kingdoms and the emperor is explained in the table below: It can be seen from the table that, except for Liu Bi and Liu Wu, the other five kings are all close relatives of the royal family.This at least shows that the safety of the regime has nothing to do with enfeoffment. Enfeoffment does not solve the problem, but creates it. When the seven countries jointly rebelled, half of the rivers and mountains fell into the hands of the rebels.Liu Qi was terrified, he didn't expect his opponent to be so powerful, and he regretted himself, Meng Lang.The two slogans put forward by the Seven Kingdoms are one is to kill Chao Cuo; the other is to return the cut land.Liu Qi accepted it all. Chao Cuo, who was loyal to the country, was thrown down by a warrior on the street and cut in half on the way to court, and slaughtered the three clans. The Allied Forces of the Seven Nations did not stop their actions because of the surrender of the central government. Liu Bi said frankly: "I want to be the emperor myself." His army was approaching Luoyang, but he only trusted his son, not his subordinates. Strategic generals: Tian Lubo, General Huan, Zhou Qiu.As for the central government, Liu Qi wisely chose Zhou Yafu as a general.On the battlefield of hand-to-hand combat, victory or defeat depends on the commander in chief. In only two months, Zhou Yafu cut off the food road of the Wu-Chu coalition army, and the Wu-Chu coalition army retreated hungry and exhausted.The Wu-Chu Allied Forces were the main force of the rebel army. After the Wu-Chu Allied Forces were defeated, the two kingdoms of Wu and Chu would be destroyed. Other kings would either commit suicide or be killed. The Rebellion of the Seven Kingdoms is a major turning point. If the Seven Kingdoms win, China is bound to return to the separatist situation of the Warring States Period, annexing each other, and endless wars.The failure of the Seven Kingdoms allowed the Western Han Dynasty to pass through the bottleneck smoothly, and the unification situation became stronger.Liu Qi took the opportunity to take back the administrative power and military power of the feudal states. It was no longer the "king" who held the power in the feudal states, but the "country minister" (the prime minister of the feudal state), who was dispatched by the central government.The central government has thus become a truly unified government, capable of making more contributions. The four Confucian thoughts are set in one Confucianism has been underestimated and attacked for three hundred years since Confucius was founded in the 5th century BC, but the disciples did not give up their efforts, and continued to spread their theories by gathering students to give lectures.When Chen Sheng and Wu Guang caused nationwide chaos, apart from the soldiers participating in the war, the busiest people in the world were the people of the Confucian school.Kong Yu, the seventh grandson of Confucius, took Confucian books and went to the rebel leaders everywhere.The treatment they received was also very pitiful. Liu Bang was the first person to hate Confucianism. When he met Confucian scholars—Confucian scholars, he grabbed their hats and urinated in them in public.But Confucian scholars are still holding on, and we can feel the embarrassment of their situation and the pain in their hearts.Because the other leaders were not as good as Liu Bang, Liu Bang finally took them in. After Liu Bang became emperor, his ministers and generals were friends from the underworld who were hooligans together. In the palace, just like in Liu Bang's house in the past, they ate and drank, sang loudly when they were drunk, and drew their swords to chop pillars Add to the fun.Not only is it a mess, but there is also the danger of being exploited by ambitious people.Liu Bang knew that it should be corrected, but he didn't know how to correct it.Here comes the opportunity for the Confucian school, which is their specialty.Shusun Tong, one of the doctors, asked him to formulate a ceremony for meeting the emperor, called "chaoyi" for short.Liu Bang was deeply wary of the complexity and tediousness of Confucianism, so he ordered: "You can try, but keep it simple, and do it within the scope of what I can do." Qufu, the capital, invited more than 30 experts, together with more than 100 disciples, to formulate regulations and practice them.A month later, the ministers and generals will be assembled for an exercise.In the first year (200 BC) of this century (2 BC), the Changle Palace was completed, congratulated by the officials, and the "Chaoyi" was officially launched.Under the guidance of court officials, the ministers and generals entered the palace in sequence (the palace refers to the entire building; the palace refers to a certain part of the building in the palace). On your own legs, chairs and stools were not popular in China until after the ninth century A.D.).The Imperial Guard officers stood still behind the ministers and generals, and then heard a series of officials from far to near reporting: "The emperor is here." Liu Bang sat in a special "chariot" drawn by people, just like the camera on the stage, Timely and slowly appear.The court officials guided the ministers and generals to read out the congratulatory speeches they had memorized by heart one by one in order of official position.At this time, the palace was quiet and solemn, and everyone was shocked.Then, the banquet began, and the ministers and generals all leaned forward and looked up. No one was allowed to straighten their backs and look forward straightly - they had to climb to the ground, and then raised their necks and raised their eyebrows to look up. .This is an obscene gesture that makes people's skin crawl and makes people feel sad, but Confucianism is using it to express the nobility of the king and the humbleness of the subjects.During the banquet, they toasted and celebrated the birthday of Liu Bang, the old rascal who became the emperor, nine times in a row.Finally, the palace officials announced loudly: "The banquet is complete." The censor (censor) appeared and drove out the ministers and generals who did not comply with the regulations one by one. punishment.This kind of situation is often only fined, but the emperor can also take this opportunity to remove him from office or behead him.So after a banquet, no one dared to make any more noise.Liu Bang was overjoyed and said: "My lord, I didn't know the majesty of being an emperor until today." Immediately promoted Shusun Tong to be one of the Nine Ministers "Fengchang" (Minister of Sacrifice), rewarded five hundred catties of gold, and the disciples also praised him. Promoted one by one.Those disciples who had been in poverty and despair for a long time couldn't help singing loudly to their teacher: "Shu Suntong is really a saint." From then on, not only the emperor and the people, but also the most honorable ministers were separated by this Confucian masterpiece "Chao Yi".The era of the Warring States Period, when monarchs and ministers sat face to face and talked knee to knee, no longer appeared in China, and the imperial regime entered a dead end that could never be turned back.The difference between Western despots and Eastern despots lies here. Although the Confucian school won the favor of the emperor technically, because it coincided with the Huang-Lao political era, it could only maintain its official position and could not affect politics.Another doctor, Yuan Gusheng, was even more unlucky than Shusun Tong. He expressed dissatisfaction with Li Er and Zhuang Zhou a little, so Empress Dowager Dou taught him to fight wild boars in the animal pen with bare hands. Fortunately, Emperor Liu Qi secretly gave him a knife. That's why I didn't lose my life.Later, Prime Minister Zhao Wan also planned to reject other schools of thought. Empress Dowager Dou arrested him and put him in prison, and Zhao Wan committed suicide.But after the death of Empress Dowager Dou (135 years ago), the Huang-Lao politics came to an end invisibly, and the Confucian school's good luck came. Liu Qi's son, Liu Che, ascended the throne in 141 BC. At the suggestion of Prime Minister Wei Wan, a national general selection of talents was held in the following year (140 BC) to select "virtuous" and "Founder" for the country. , "Speaking out and admonishing" and other national management talents are tested by the emperor himself.Liu Che was seventeen years old at that time, and he was just a big kid who only liked to wander. Of course, the test was decided by Representative Wei Wan.Wei Wan is a Confucian scholar, and people of the Confucian school are naturally considered the only national management talents.Dong Zhongshu, a Ph.D. who specializes in the study of "Spring and Autumn", one of the "Five Classics", in his Wanyan test paper, attacked other schools of thought as heretical and heretical.He suggested: "All works that are not included in the "Five Classics", as well as books not taught by Confucius, should be banned and not circulated." Wei Wan ranked him first, that is, the emperor listed him as the first. one. Since Dong Zhongshu's opinion was adopted by the emperor, it became the state's policy.Thus, a major change happened quietly. First, the official post of "doctor" in the Ministry of Sacrifice (Taichang, that is, Fengchang) was originally held by people from various schools of thought.Since then, only the Confucian school can act, and the scope is limited, only the "Five Classics" can be studied.People from other schools of thought were all expelled, and Confucianism then dominated the academic center and settled on one.The works of other schools of thought have been regarded by the government as "heresy" and "monstrous talk" for a long time, and reading and research are prohibited, so they gradually disappeared from the minds of intellectuals.There is only one family of philosophers left, and only the Five Classics are left in one family.Confucianism then became the only orthodox thought in China appointed by the emperor. Second, the Confucian school established a national university (Taixue) under the Ministry of Sacrifice (Taichang), with doctors as teachers to teach the "Five Classics" and the thoughts of Confucius.Students are paid by the state, and as long as they graduate with recognized studies, they are appointed as local government officials.Not only is it the only way for civilians to enter the government, thus increasing the centripetal force of intellectuals towards the Confucian school, but over time, the Confucian school permeates all levels of government and becomes a highly exclusive Confucian system. Thirdly, the basic idea of ​​Confucianism is to go back to the past—at least the status quo should be maintained, and the most important method is ritual education, especially funeral rites.The three-year mourning, which was not feasible even in the Meng Ke era in the fourth century BC, has been gradually implemented since then.A Chinese, for six years of his life, is not allowed to do anything but mourn his parents every day.In addition to this most serious link, there are more and more ethical codes that follow, and Chinese intellectuals have been nervous about it almost all their lives.Some projects, like Taboo, are simply overwhelming. The glorious golden age of intellectual and academic freedom has begun to set in the west.In its place came the age of Confucianism, which took fifty times longer than the age of Taoism—Huang-Lao politics. It was not until the twentieth century after the Era that it declined due to the impact of new Western trends of thought.Therefore, in the following narratives, we must always pay attention to the fact that Chinese history is under the practice of Confucianism—returning to the past and maintaining the status quo. Five counterattacks against the Hun Khanate The Huang-Lao politics brought unprecedented prosperity to China at that time. Although the Huang-Lao politics ended, the prosperity was still there.As far as horses are concerned, in the 1900s, the prime minister could only ride in an ox cart. Of course the emperor had a carriage, but he couldn't find four horses of the same color.But in the 1950s, the central government only raised 400,000 horses in the capital Chang'an.There are horses everywhere in the folk streets and alleys, and there are only horses competing to ride.The time has come to fight back against the mighty Hun Khanate. Due to the peace between China and Hungary, there have been no major conflicts on the border for a long time.When the Chinese counterattack began in the 1960s, it adopted a strategy of luring the enemy to strike first.In the first 133 years, the general (general general) Wang Hui commanded more than 300,000 troops and ambushed in the left and right valleys of Mayi (Shuozhou, Shanxi).Nie Yi, a wealthy man in Mayi, had always had close business contacts with the Xiongnu. He hung the heads of two death row prisoners on the city gate of Mayi and told the Xiongnu spies that he had killed the head of Mayi and asked the Xiongnu to attack.The military minister Shan Yu believed it was true, and personally led 100,000 cavalry, entered from Wuzhou Sai (Zuoyun, Shanxi), and pointed directly at Mayi.After marching for more than 100 kilometers, when we were less than 100 kilometers away from Mayi, we saw cattle and sheep everywhere, but no shepherds, and felt a little strange.So they captured a nearby Saiting (watchtower) and captured an official from Yanmen County (Youyu, Shanxi). When he was about to kill him, the official revealed all the secrets. The master gave you to us." The official was named the king of heaven and ordered to retreat.China got nothing. Although this conspiratorial plan came to nothing, the 50-year-old friendly relations between China and Hungary have broken down since then.The Hun Khanate resumed its previous large-scale aggression.However, the situation is not what it used to be. China's response was very severe, immediately launching a series of non-stop attacks. Four years after Mayizhimou (129 BC), generals Wei Qing, Gongsun Ao, Gongsun He, and Li Guang left Shanggu (Huailai, Hebei), Daijun (Yuxian, Hebei), and Yunzhong (Toketuo, Inner Mongolia) respectively. ), Yanmen (Shanxi Youyu) four-way attack.Next year (before 128), Wei Qing and another general Li Xi went out of Yanmen and Daijun respectively to attack.Next year (127 B.C.), Wei Qing and Li Xi came out of the clouds again and made a roundabout attack to the west. This time, they started to gain a lot. The Xiongnu were defeated. China drove the Huns out of Hetao again, which is between the Hetao Desert and the Yellow River. , and built Shuofang City (north of Hangjin Banner, Inner Mongolia).Three years later (before 124), Wei Qing led six generals to attack Gaoque (southeast of Wulatehou Banner, Inner Mongolia), Youbeiping (southwest of Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia), and Shuofang (north of Hangjin Banner, Inner Mongolia). Going deep into the Huns Khanate for 300 kilometers, they captured more than ten young kings, 15,000 men and women, and nearly one million cattle and sheep. Next year (first one, two, three), Wei Qing will lead six generals out of Dingxiang (Inner Mongolia and Linger) to attack.This time China suffered a defeat, and the 3,000-man cavalry regiment led by general Su Jian was completely wiped out.Another general, Xin Zhao, surrendered to the Huns after the defeat. Because Xin Zhao knew the inside story of China, the Huns Khanate treated him like a treasure, and built a city of Xin Zhao specially for him.Two years later (before 121), the 23-year-old Chinese general Huo Qubing went out of Longxi (Lintiao, Gansu) to attack, crossed Yanzhi Mountain (Yanzhi Mountain, southeast of Shandan, Gansu) for 500 kilometers, and beheaded 8,000 people under the name of the Huns. More than 900 people captured the golden man used by King Xiutu of the Huns to sacrifice to heaven.In the same year, Huo Qubing went out of Longxi for the second attack, crossed Juyanhai (Ejina Banner, Inner Mongolia), penetrated more than 1,000 kilometers, and killed 30,200 captives.Huo Qubing won two unprecedented victories in a year, crossing the Hexi Corridor, as if entering no one's land.But the Hexi Corridor was the defense line of King Hunxie of the Hun Khanate, and Yizhixie Shanyu was furious and forced to hold accountable for the failure.King Hunxie was afraid of being killed, so he took his tribe and his land and surrendered to China.This was a major blow to the Huns Khanate. They sang: "The death of my Qilian Mountain will prevent my livestock from multiplying. The loss of my Yanzhi Mountain will make my women colorless." The red dye produced by Yanzhi Mountain can be used as Women's cosmetics, the word "rouge" in China comes from this. The Sino-Hungarian war lasted for fifteen years, and it was not until the 1980s that there was a decisive battle. The Xiongnu Khanate also knew that the glory of the past had passed, so they adopted the suggestion of the surrendered general Zhao Xin, thinking that the Chinese army could not go deep into the desert, so they withdrew the national border, and Shanyu went far to the north of the vast desert group.Of course China would not give up. In 119 BC, Wei Qing left Dingxiang, and Huo Qubing left Daijun to attack the Xiongnu.The Wei Qing Corps penetrated 500 kilometers into the Hun Khanate, and Yizhi Xie Shanyu hurriedly fought, was defeated, and fled northward.Wei Qing pursued Zhao Xincheng in Yinyan Mountain (Southwest of Har and Lin, Mongolia), but there was no trace of the enemy (in this battle, the famous general Li Guang lost his way in the desert and committed suicide).Huo Qubing's corps penetrated more than 1,000 kilometers into the desert and killed more than 70,000 captives, while the Xiongnu Khanate had only 300,000 soldiers at its peak when Maodun Shanyu was at its peak.Huo Qubing pursued to Langjuxu Mountain (Kent Mountain, Mongolia), but there was no trace of the enemy. This was the most important battle against the Huns Khanate. From then on, there was no royal court south of the Hanhai Desert Group, and the Huns Khanate did not pose an existential threat to China as it did in the past.In 115 and later, China established four counties in the Hexi Corridor, the hometown of King Hunxie: Jiuquan County (Jiuquan, Gansu), Wuwei County (Wuwei, Gansu), and Zhangye County (Zhangye, Gansu).Dunhuang County (Dunhuang, Gansu).This land has since become China's territory until today. Six Zhang Qian's Travels to the Western Regions When China was preparing to fight back against the Huns Khanate, it remembered an enemy of the Huns Khanate - Yuezhi Kingdom.This kingdom was originally established in the Hexi Corridor, and its capital was in Zhangye (Zhangye, Gansu). It was a big country.However, in the 1930s (before 20) and 1930s, it was defeated by the Huns Khanate, and the king's skull was used as a urinal by the old Shang Shanyu (the son of Maodun Shanyu).The whole country fled to the west, and fled to the south of Weihai in Central Asia and the north of Afghanistan to settle down, and settled in Lanshicheng (Wazirabad, Afghanistan). China hopes to form an alliance with the Yuezhi Kingdom and attack the Huns from east to west.From the Chinese point of view, the Yuezhi Kingdom has a deep hatred for the Xiongnu who killed their father and destroyed the country. Once they hear that there is a chance to take revenge and restore the country, they must be very grateful.The central government recruited envoys, and Zhang Qian from Chenggu (Chenggu, Shaanxi) accepted the envoy. There are more than a hundred people with the same courage as him. The Yuezhi Kingdom is more than 3,000 kilometers away from the Chinese capital Chang'an in a straight line. At that time, the western boundary of China only reached Jincheng (Lanzhou, Gansu). Beyond this was the territory and sphere of influence of the Huns Khanate.At the southern foot of the Qilian Mountains, there are Qiang tribes who murdered and looted goods.Further west is the Western Regions. According to rumors and rumors, the Western Regions are all boundless deserts and sandy moraines.There is also salt water (Lop Nur) where not a single blade of grass grows, and the eyes are desolate. There are no birds above, no animals below, and often there is no human habitation for a month.There is no official road, and the only way to travel is to walk along the dead bones of the predecessors who died on the way. It is a terrifying and strange place. In 138 B.C., Zhang Qian and his envoys set off from the capital Chang'an, and went deep into the Northwest wilderness full of dangers and deaths that they knew nothing about.They encountered bad luck at the beginning. Soon after entering the Hexi Corridor, they were captured by the Huns Khanate. When they found out that they were going to the Yuezhi Kingdom, the military minister Shan Yu became even more angry: "What are you talking about, Yuezhi?" The Kingdom of Shishi is to the west of me, how dare China cross the Xiongnu and communicate with them. If I send envoys to the Kingdom of Nanyue (Guangzhou, Guangdong), will China allow them to pass through?” Orders are forbidden to leave the country, but they are respected as heroes, so everyone A Hun lady was introduced as a wife.Ten years passed like this, and in the first year of the 1970s (129 BC), Zhang Qian and his companions, not forgetting their mission, abandoned their wives and fled westward.Finally fled to Dawan Kingdom (Uzbek Kasan Sai City), Dawan sent people to Kangju Kingdom (Kazakh Turkestan), and Kangju sent people to Yuezhi Kingdom.However, the Yuezhi Kingdom is very wealthy now, and it is much more comfortable than the old place in the Hexi Corridor.The current king is the grandson of the dead king, and his feelings for his grandfather are further separated, so no one thinks of revenge and restoration of the country.Zhang Qian lived in the Yuezhi Kingdom for more than a year and returned disappointed.On the way home, he was caught by the Xiongnu patrol for the second time and was forbidden to leave the country.In 126 B.C., he abandoned his wife again and fled from the Huns. His wife and children heard the news and rushed to follow them. However, the pursuers had arrived. Zhang Qian only managed to snatch one son. His wife and another youngest son were pursued by the soldiers. Cut off, farewell forever.When Zhang Qian was sent as an envoy, there were more than one hundred people. When he returned to Chang'an twelve years later, there were only two people left—Zhang Qian and his loyal servant Gan Fu from Tangyi (Jiangsu Liuhe). Although Zhang Qian's mission this time did not achieve the political purpose he had hoped for, he discovered for the Chinese a new world that was even wider than China at that time.His contribution can only be compared with the discovery of the New World by Columbus.When Zhang Qian was lobbying in the Yuezhi Kingdom, he visited the Daxia Kingdom (northeast of Afghanistan) and found cloth from Shu County (Chengdu, Sichuan) and bamboo from Qionglai Mountain (Yingjing, Sichuan).The Daxia people told him: "Bought from the Shendu Kingdom (India)." Zhang Qian speculated that the goods can pass through the Shendu Kingdom, so of course people and horses can also.In other words, instead of taking the risk of being captured and detained by the Huns, it would be safer to start from Shu County and reach the Western Regions.This design was supported by Emperor Liu Che, which led to China's development of "Southwestern Yi". In 121 BC, King Hunxie of the Hun Khanate surrendered, and the Hexi Corridor became Chinese territory, so China had direct contact with the Western Regions.Zhang Qian then proposed an alliance with the Wusun Kingdom (Kyrgyz Ishtik).The Wusun Kingdom was originally located in the west of the Hexi Corridor, adjacent to the Yuezhi Kingdom. Later, it was expelled by the Yuezhi and moved westward to the southeast of Balkhash Lake in Central Asia. It is a big country across the Yili River.Zhang Qian believed that Wusun was more of a threat to the Xiongnu than the Yuezhi, and gaining the friendship of the Wusun Kingdom was tantamount to cutting off the right arm of the Huns Khanate.In 116 BC, Zhang Qian went to the Western Regions for the second time and arrived in Wusun Kingdom safely.They invited Wusun to move back to their hometown, but the Wusun Kingdom's response was very cold. First, it didn't know the size and strength of China, so it couldn't make such a big decision based on the one-sided words of the envoys.Second, it also feared revenge from the Huns Khanate.Zhang Qian stopped for more than a year and returned disappointed.However, he did two things. First, he sent his subordinates to the Kingdom of Kangju, the Kingdom of Yuezhi, the Kingdom of Daxia, the Kingdom of Anxi (Iran), the Kingdom of Shendu (India), and the Kingdom of Khotan (Hetian, Xinjiang). , to promote the prestige of China.一是他动身回国时，邀请乌孙王国派遣使节与他同行，到中国访问。 张骞回国后的明年（前一一四）逝世，但他派赴各国的使节，伴同各国的使节团和商团，陆续抵达长安。从此交往频繁，中国与西域诸国关系，日增密切。尤其是乌孙王国，当它的使节发现中国竟然是如此的庞然大物而又富强无比时，不禁肃然起敬。虽然仍不愿东迁，而且那时中国已在河西走廊设立了四个郡，也不再希望他们东迁。但它决定向中国臣服。匈奴汗国当然不高兴，扬言要采取军事行动。乌孙王昆莫紧张起来，向中国求婚，希望用中国的婚姻关系阻吓匈奴的侵略。纪元前一○五年，一位美丽的中国公主刘细君嫁给乌孙国王昆莫（后来改嫁昆莫的孙儿岑娶）。匈奴汗国听到消息，急急忙忙也送了一位美丽的匈奴公主给乌孙王国，打算抵消中国公主的影响力，但匈奴汗国在西域的声势，已开始受到挑战。 然而，并不是每一个使节都具有张骞那种超人的智慧和见识。出使大宛王国的使节向皇帝刘彻报告说，大宛王国贰师城（乌孜别克哈马特城）有一种世界上最好的马，名“汗血马”，流出来的汗像血一样，每天能跑五百公里。刘彻当即派使节携带二十万两黄金，作为价款。又用黄金铸成一个金马，作为礼物，向大宛王国购买。大宛王毋寡认为汗血马是他们的国宝，不肯出售。中国使节仗着国家强大，就在毋寡面前，把金马击碎，破口大骂，掉头而去。大宛王毋寡大为愤怒，命它东境郁成城（乌孜别克乌兹根城）的镇守大将郁成王，截住中国使节团，全部杀掉。 中国远征军在大将李广利率领下出发，明年（前一○三），远征军抵达郁成城，却被郁成王击败。大宛王国全国欢腾，庆祝强敌溃退，但他们庆祝的太早。又明年（前一○二），正是本世纪最后第二年，中国远征军获得增援，围攻大宛首都贵山城（乌兹别克卡散赛城）。贵山城的外廓陷落，大臣们知道不能支持，只好把毋寡杀掉求和，交出所有汗血马，任凭远征军选择。屠杀中国使节团的郁成王，逃到康居王国，被引渡军前处决。 这是一场不荣誉的战争，中国伤亡十万人左右，目的只不过为了三千余匹汗血马。汗血马来到中国后即没有下文，一定早已绝种。而以后也再没有听说过西域有这种宝马，可能这种马被过度夸张，不过是普通的马。也可能大宛王国鉴于汗血马是灾祸之源，为了避免类似这种伤害，而把它们杀光，像传说中的大象在危急时，自动把象牙折断一样。 七中国疆土的再扩张 除了北方和西方，中国向南、向东北、向西南，同时都在扩张。 中国南方，于上世纪（前三）八十年代，曾被秦王朝收入版图，设立四郡：闽中郡、南海郡、桂林郡、象郡。九十年代，秦王朝覆亡。它们又脱离中国，分别建立下列三个独立王国： 一、东海王国首都东匝（浙江温州），原闽中郡北境。 二、闽越王国首都东冶（福建福州），原闽中郡南境。即故“闽中地”。 三、南越王国首都番禹（广东广州），原南海郡、桂林郡、象郡。即故“陆梁地”。 本世纪（前二）纪元前一三八年，闽越王国攻击北方的东海王国，东海王国向中国求救，中国赴援，闽越兵团撤退。东海国王骆望恐怕中国军队走了之后闽越卷上重来，就举国归降。全国人口大约四万余人，西汉政府把他们迁置到淮河以南地区定居，东海王国消失。 三年后（前一三五），好战的闽越王国转过头来又攻击南方的南越王国，南越王国向中国求救。中国远征军分别由西路北路，向闽越夹攻。闽越国王骆郢的弟弟骆余善看出情形不对，即把骆郢杀掉，向中国乞和。中国途命骆余善和另一位王族骆丑，同时当王，共同治理国家。 南越国王赵婴齐于本世纪（前二）纪元前一一三年逝世，儿子赵兴的母亲囗太后是中华人，西汉政府于是乘此机会，派遣使节安国少季到南越，诱说赵兴取消独立，归附中国。樱太后怀念祖国，怂恿她的儿子接受。可是南越王国立国已百年之久，开国国王赵伦，于上世纪（前三）九十年代陈胜、吴广起兵时，正担任秦王朝南海郡（广东广州）民兵司令（都尉），立即断绝大庆岭山道，阻止战争南延，自己称王，建立自己的南越王国。迄今已历四代，政府大臣和人民，都不愿再被中国兼并。所以，囗太后母子陷于孤立。明年（前一一二），宰相吕嘉发动政变，攻杀囗大后和国王赵兴，另立赵婴齐本国妻子所生儿子赵建德继位。又明年（前一一一），中国远征军攻陷首都番禺（广东广州），生擒吕嘉和赵建德，南越王国灭亡。中国将它的故土，分为下列十郡： 一南海郡（广东广州） 二苍梧郡（广西梧州） 三交趾郡（越南河内） 四合浦郡（广西合浦） 五郁林郡（广西桂平） 六九真郡（越南清化） 七日南郡（越南东河） 八珠崖郡（海南琼山） 九儋耳郡（海南儋州） 中国攻击南越王国时，闽越国王骆余善表示愿派军队八千人助战，可是却只口头宣传，并不加入战斗。南越破灭后，任何稍有头脑的人，至少都会避免跟中国冲突。骆余善却往相反的方向走，他像魔鬼附体一样，立刻自称皇帝，宣布跟中国皇帝居于平等地位。更糟糕的是，他还出兵袭击中国撤退北返的远征军。明年（纪元前一一○年），中国远征军掉转头来，向闽越王国进攻，骆余善被另一个国王骆丑的继任人骆居股逮捕杀掉，向中国投降，中国把他们迁到淮河以南地区，跟东海王国的遗民一齐定居，闽越王国灭亡。 南方秦王朝开拓的故疆，至此全部恢复。 在东北，中国跟朝鲜王国接壤。朝鲜半岛当时诸国并立，朝鲜王国最大，居于北部。半岛南部则有辰国——一个由各部落联盟的松懈国家。 纪元前一○九年，中国派遣使节涉何到朝鲜王国，游说朝鲜国王卫右渠取消独立，归附中国。卫右渠拒绝，但仍很礼貌的派人送涉何北返。想不到涉何是一个胆大妄为的亡命之徒，回国途中，走到两国交界的清川江，竟把好心肠的护送人员刺死，然后向皇帝刘彻报告说他杀的是朝鲜大将。刘彻嘉勉他的冒险精神，命他担任辽东郡（辽宁辽阳）民兵司令（都尉）。卫右渠大怒，派兵击杀涉何。 涉何的荒唐和卫右渠的不能忍辱负重，使中朝两国战争爆发。明年，纪元前一○八年，中国远征军强渡清川江，攻陷首都王险城（朝鲜平壤），卫右渠被他的部下所杀，朝鲜王国（卫氏朝鲜）遂亡。中国将它的故地，分为下列四郡： 一乐浪郡（朝鲜平壤） 二临屯郡（朝鲜江陵） 三玄菟郡（朝鲜安边，后迁辽宁新宾，再迁辽宁沈阳） 四真番郡（朝鲜汉城） 这是朝鲜半岛北部第一次归入中国版图，历时四百余年，纪元后四世纪初，才被新兴的高句丽王国夺去。 在西南，中国边界只到巴郡（四川重庆）和蜀郡（四川成都），越过此线，便是“西南夷”——万山丛中，散布着数不清的野蛮部落。史学家为了方便起见，对这些部落，称之为“国”，对它们的酋长，称之为“王”，其中以下列八个强大的国，比较重要： 中国向西南扩张，完全基于军事理由。最早，纪元前一三五年，援助南越王国对抗闽越王国时，远征军一位将领唐蒙，在南越王国发现蜀郡（四川成都）的“枸杞酱”，当地人说是商人从洋河江运来的（洋河江，今贵州红水河上游，向东南注入西江）。唐蒙推测从蜀郡到洋河江，一定有路可通，假如顺着枸杞商道，出奇兵从背后攻击南越王国，真是神兵天降。西汉政府于是命唐蒙当开道大臣，唐蒙从窄关（四川合江）出发，先到夜郎国，再向东进，又到且兰国，终于发现通洋河江之路。 在夜郎国，夜郎王根本不知道有中国这么回事，他问唐蒙：“中国跟夜郎比，谁大？” 唐蒙回去后，即由巴郡、蜀郡，分别发遣民工，开山凿道，使能通过大军。不过沿途尽是穷山恶水，在那个没有炸药的时代，纯靠双手和简单的铁器，面对重重山峦，至为艰苦，不断地死伤和粮食转运困难，几乎激起民变，但工程终于完成。纪元前一一一年，中国对南越王国攻击时，即利用这条新开的山道，调发西南夷各国军队出征。只有且兰王拒绝接受命令，并且截杀中国使臣和键为郡郡长。结果远征军回头讨伐，且兰王被杀，国亡。 张骞由蜀郡（四川成都）西通身毒王国（印度），再由身毒通西域的构想，使政府采取行动。大文学家司马相如因为是蜀郡人的缘故，有很大的贡献，在他的游说下，窄都国、冉囗国都先后归附。邛崃国在中国远征军压力下，也跟着归附。只有遥远的滇国拒绝，这个坚强的部落酋长滇王，提出夜郎王同样的问题：“中国和滇国比，谁大？”纪元前一○九年，中国远征军抵达滇国，滇王投降。 西南夷至此全部归入中国版图，政府分别在这些小国所在，设立郡县。如上表所示，共有七郡。只益州郡不久即行脱离，当中国继续派遣使节再往探测身毒王国道路时，滇王拘留他们不放。不过那时中国已得到河西走廊，不再需要远涉身毒王国了。 八汉赋 在本世纪（前二）结束时，我们且转到文学领域。 纪元前六世纪的和纪元前四世纪的《楚辞》，是中国文学——尤其是“诗”的两大源头，到本世纪（前二）发展而成为另一种形式：“赋”。因为它特别盛行于西汉王朝，所以也称之为“汉赋”。 所包括的，全是短句短诗，每句不过三个字或四五个字，每首不过十几句，简单朴实。《楚辞》则如长江大河，滔滔不绝，是一种长篇史诗。“赋”在形式上是《楚辞》式的，只去掉所有的特殊方言。在内容上则是式的，只再扩大内涵。一篇标准的“赋”，大约有三四百句，每句字数没有限制，虽不严格的押韵，但它确实有韵。这种体裁，比、《楚辞》，更能活泼的表达感想和议论。 我们不必举出实例，因为这种古老的文学作品，非经详细注解，已无法读得懂，如加上注解，所占篇幅就太多了。 在“赋”的写作上，最有成就的作家，就是西南夷开拓中建立功勋的司马相如。皇帝刘彻是一个喜爱文学的人，有一天，他读到司马相如的《子虚赋》，惋惜说：“我自恨不能跟作者生在同一个时代。”一位也是蜀郡（四川成都）人的宦官在一旁说：“他是我的同乡，我听说他有很多这种作品。”刘彻大喜，立刻征召他到长安。——这种结合跟赢政和韩非的结合，完全相同，不同的是那位宦官不必害怕司马相如夺他的位置。 刘彻的征召恰是时候，因为司马相如在家乡正不得意。司马相如很穷，偶尔有一次，参加临邛（四川邛崃）富豪卓王孙的宴会。卓王孙的新寡女儿卓文君，是一位喜爱文学和音乐的女子，在宴会上，司马相如弹琴，故意弹出《凤求凰》曲子，卓文君从窗缝中窥探，看到他仪容潇洒，不由的爱上了他。结果，跟他私奔。 这在当时是一件丑闻，卓王孙气的发昏，跟女儿断绝父女关系。司马相如饥寒交迫，便索性在他岳父门前，开设一家酒铺，司马相如短裤赤膊，招待客人。而由卓文君亲自为客人烫酒。这对于讲身份的富豪来说奖一个天大的侮辱，卓王孙脸上无光，闭门不出。后来兄弟们—再劝解，才算分一点财产给女儿。 正在此时，刘彻征召司马相如。司马相如比韩非幸运，没有受到入狱毒死的待遇，刘彻给了他一个中级官职。又命政府供应他纸笔（这些都是当时的贵重物品）。以后，又被擢升为皇家警卫指挥官（中郎将），派到蜀郡（四川成都）处理西南夷诸国归附事宜。因为他是钦差大臣，蜀郡郡长（太守）以下，远出郊外迎接，沿途各县县长亲自当前导，蜀郡人士深感这是全郡的光荣。卓王孙和临邛的其他富豪也都到蜀郡欢迎，而且深恨自己把女儿嫁给司马相如太晚（这使我们想起纪元前四世纪的苏秦）。 司马相如的遭遇是传奇的，传奇的枢纽在于“赋”，可说明“赋”的份量。“赋”一直支配中国文坛，到纪元后六世纪，才被淘汰。 为了对这个演变有一完整印象，我们姑且把中国“诗”的主流，用下表显示： 九东西方世界 纪元前一六八年（吕雉死后十二年），希腊各城邦，除斯巴达外，共组亚该亚同盟。马其顿王百尔修为盟主，攻击斯巴达，强迫它加入同盟，共抗罗马共和国。罗马遂击马其顿，马其顿大败投降，被掳去男女十五万人，悉卖为奴。 纪元前一四九年（七国之乱后五年），第三次布匿战争爆发。罗马深恐迦太基共和国复兴，借口迦太基违反停战条约，出兵进攻，命迦太基交出全部军械，并以贵族子弟三百人当作人质，迦太基全部接受。但罗马忽然懊悔条件太轻，又加上拆除城墙，不准在市区添建房屋，不准沿海居住等等条款。罗马立意要激怒迎太基，迦太基果然被激怒，妇女儿童都参加作战，保卫祖国。 纪元前一四六年（罢黜百家、独尊儒术的前六年），第三次布匿战争结束。迦太基城陷，国亡。罗马纵火屠城，迦太基抵抗到最后一人，全部被杀。老弱幸存者，全被卖为奴隶（迦太基共和国的结局凄惨而悲壮，使我们不愉快的证明“哀兵必胜”这句话不是绝对的，它只是格言，不是定律，而历史上偏偏有太多的格言）。