Chapter 7 Traditional Politics in Chinese History

Regarding China and the West, due to different nations, different cultures, and different historical processes.From the political organization down to the social system, the two sides have their major differences.The main one, such as religion.Since the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, Christianity has been the common belief in the other side and has become a guiding center for Western society.Until the last century, the Christian faith, although gradually declining, still had a latent force.However, under the Chinese cultural tradition, there has not been a religion like that of other ethnic groups. This is a big thing to pay attention to.

As far back as 3,000 years ago, the Western Zhou Dynasty rose up, reforming and strengthening the feudal system.At that time, China had formed a unified situation, but it can only be called feudal unity, which is different from the unification of prefectures and counties below the Qin and Han Dynasties.At that time, there was the Zhou Gong system of rites and music, which was used as the highest standard for the Western Zhou Dynasty to guide and rule the feudal princes.In the Spring and Autumn Period, the royal family declined first, followed by the decline of the Qi and Jin hegemony, the collapse of rites and music, and the feudal system of the Western Zhou Dynasty.However, during the two hundred and forty years of the Spring and Autumn Period, virtuous monarchs and officials from all over the world prospered. At that time, the aristocratic class was still influenced by the rituals and music established by the Duke of Zhou in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, showing a deep cultural accomplishment.In other words, there is a kind of educational power guiding politics, which can be known in detail just by reading "Chunqiu Zuoshi Zhuan".

At that time, a class of scholars had gradually emerged in society.This class of scholars does not become nobles at the top, but is different from commoners at the bottom. It is the distant descendants of the nobles and the handsome children of the common people who have learned the various rituals and music pursued by the nobles at that time, and entered the world. Served under the feudal regime of the time.Therefore, the rise of scholars was a new industry and new product in society at that time. Confucius also rose from the scholar class, but Confucius advocated replacing professional scholars with moral scholars.To be a scholar is not only to seek a career, but also to do his best in the profession with a higher spirit of morality and righteousness.Confucius inherited Zhou Gong's ideal of leading politics with academics, and fostered a new class of scholars.Mohism followed Confucius and Confucianism, and then a hundred schools of thought contended during the Warring States Period. The emerging scholar class has replaced the feudal aristocracy before the Spring and Autumn Period, and has become a new center of leadership in Chinese society.

In the book "Guanzi" completed by people in the Warring States period, the four ranks of scholars, farmers, workers, and merchants have been clearly put forward.The common people in the feudal era were granted land for farming by the feudal nobles through the well field system.But in the Warring States Period, free industry and commerce emerged, and the old society in which the feudal aristocrats controlled land and economic power had completely changed.The more significant change is the new class of scholars at the center of social leadership.They can lead the government upwards and the people downwards.In the book, Confucius has specified the ideals and ambitions, as well as the cultivation and morals that scholars should have, one by one.Because of his appearance, he was called "Scholar-bureaucrat" by later generations.Because of his location, he was called "Scholar Gentleman" by later generations.For scholars, political career and educational career are integrated into one, and they do not take private economics as a priority.Mencius called scholars laborers, and farmers and businessmen laborers.Those who work hard eat people, and those who work hard eat people.This distinction has become a traditional form of Chinese society and has remained unchanged for two thousand years.

Qin destroyed the six kingdoms, and the world returned to unity, but the government system at that time was far from comparable to the ancient aristocratic government.As a prime minister, there was Lu Buwei in front of him, who was from the state of Zhao.Then there was Li Si, who was from the state of Chu.Among the generals was Meng Tian, ​​whose grandfather Ao was a native of Qi.From Ao to Tian, ​​he has been a Qin general for three generations.At that time, there were countless travelers from the eastern countries who served in the Qin government.And the Qin court was no longer feudal.This is an ideal that has been led by scholars since Confucius, and it has been accurately completed.

Therefore, in Chinese history, the traditional government from the Qin Dynasty down cannot be called an aristocratic government, nor can it be called a military government or a merchant government. If it must be a special name, it should be called a "scholar government." .The official establishment of the scholar government was after Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.During the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, several systems had been established.One is the education system, the other is the examination system, and the other is the election system.Every scholar must go through the promotion and promotion of these three systems, from the bottom of society to the top of the government.Although the emperor is the supreme leader of the government, he must follow these systems and exercise his powers.In the past two thousand years, although these three systems have changed, in general, the vast majority of government personnel must go through the examination and approval of these three systems, and there has been no change.

In the Western Han Dynasty, after a long period of unification, the country was stable.At that time, its territory was as wide as that of China in later generations.Free industry and commerce, since the Warring States period, has accumulated a solid foundation and leaps forward at the right time, which may have a tendency to embark on a capitalist society.However, the Han government strictly controlled, created a salt and iron policy, and various other measures to prevent all the daily necessities of the people from being in the hands of the private profit-making business circles.This kind of intention will always be used by future generations.Therefore, although Chinese society has been stable and prosperous for a long time, free industry and commerce have made continuous progress both at home and abroad, and capitalism will never occur.

At that time, China had established a national compulsory military service system.The land is vast, the population is large, and its combat power far exceeds that of its neighbors.But at that time, the government formulated national policies that only focused on protecting the environment and the people, and that the external success could be done in moderation, and it would never take the imperialist line of expanding territories, aggression and annexation. People in recent times say that China is a feudal society, or an agricultural society.However, the rise of the industrial and commercial metropolis was as far back as two thousand years ago and lasted until the end of the Qing Dynasty.Suzhou, for example, was the capital of Wu State in the Spring and Autumn Period, and it has been a famous city in all dynasties.By the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, Jin soldiers crossed the Yangtze River, and 500,000 residents of Suzhou City died.From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, Guangzhou has been an important port for overseas trade in southern China. In the Huangchao Rebellion at the end of the Tang Dynasty, there were 100,000 deaths of large food merchants in Guangzhou.From the Han Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty, Yangzhou was a prosperous place, often praised by literati.Apart from Chang'an and Luoyang, other cities have become industrial and commercial centers. There are very few historical records to see.Its foreign trade, such as silk, porcelain, tea, etc., has made great profits like picking up mustard.China is not without grand industry and commerce, but capitalism is not developed from industry and commerce.Nearby people also know that China loves peace, but in the history of China, there are times when martial arts were brilliant.In the Han Dynasty, a branch of the Xiongnu fled westward, which caused great disturbance in Europe.The Turkic branch of the Tang Dynasty fled westward, which caused great fluctuations in Western history.The Mongol Empire shocked Asia and Europe, but its invasion of China finally achieved its ambition.Its first failure was also in China.The maritime envoys of the Ming Dynasty made many voyages and reached the east coast of Africa.Subsequently, overseas Chinese spread all over Southeast Asia, but never established colonies overseas.

The reason for this is that China has had a traditional scholar-official government for two thousand years.The power of the government is not in the hands of nobles, soldiers, or businessmen, but in the hands of a generation of scholars with special education and special ideals.The education of this generation of scholars is in the hands of the lower classes of society, not in the government.That is to say, in the era of Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty, a national university was established, and the instructors were doctors of the Five Classics, all of which came from the people and had their own objective standards.

Not only are the ministers and ministers in high positions in the government, but they are all from scholar background, and they are all selected and appointed from among the scholars.That is, the crown prince, the prince, and other royal relatives and noble children all receive the same education as scholars.In several dynasties, such as Song Ruming, the emperor himself was also taught at the same time.The inner court set up a banquet to lecture on the scriptures, and selected the court's famous Confucianism as it.Therefore, although Chinese Confucianism does not constitute a religion, it is believed and revered by the Chinese people, and it is consistent from the government to the people.Before the Tang Dynasty, it was called Zhougong Confucius, and after the Song Dynasty, it was called Confucius and Mencius.Benevolence and morality, self-cultivation, family harmony, state governance, and world peace, have a common ideal and common norms, all of which are achieved through education.To put it shortly, it can be said that it has been two thousand years since the Han Dynasty; in a long-term, it can be said that it has been three thousand years since the Western Zhou Dynasty. This common ideal is education.This matter was made public by Zhou, and it was completed by Confucius, and it was expounded by Mencius.The government and people in Chinese history were also cultivated and led by this education.The large system of the scholar government also depends on this to maintain and remain unchanged.

In the history of China, the contribution of the scholar-official government was not only as mentioned above, but also prevented China from following the two routes of capitalism and imperialism.In terms of political systems, such as the above-mentioned education system, election system, and examination system, which are specially valued by the traditional scholar-official government, other such as the taxation system, at the beginning of each dynasty, a taxation standard must be stipulated first, and the whole country must abide by it. Instead, it is mainly about light shaking and thin Fu.Unless there is a major event, it should not be changed easily.Another example is the criminal laws of each dynasty, which are often stipulated by collective discussions of famous Confucianists, and are strictly observed by the upper and lower levels.There are regulations on the distribution and use of officials.Those who are relatives of the royal family can also be named kings and marquises, but this is only limited to clothing, rent, food and taxes, and does not interfere with the actual political affairs of the government.The military ministers who received military merits were only rewarded with titles and honors, and no longer had official positions.The army first adopts the military system of all farmers, such as the Han Dynasty.Later, the entire army was changed to a farming system, such as the soldiers in the Tang Dynasty and the Weifu in the Ming Dynasty.When the army is disarmed and returned to the fields, they are all productive elements, and they do not need to be provided by the state.Usually there are only a few guards from the central government, and border guards when necessary.There is no police and almost no army throughout the country.Industry and commerce are all free, but they are only allowed to make limited private gains, and they are not allowed to pass the election test and participate in politics.Scholars who participated in politics through election examinations all came from the countryside.In addition, the whole country considers the size of the population and the amount of taxes, and determines the standards for admission in various places, so that all scholars in the country have the opportunity to participate in politics, and all officials in the government have access to all parts of the country.The election examination and civil servant promotion and promotion are all in the government, and each has a full-time job.Only when the emperor appointed high positions such as prime ministers did he receive opinions from the participants.The government also has special positions for supervision and remonstrance. The supervision is partial to the central and local governments at all levels, and the remonstrance is even more specific to the emperor and the court.They also use middle and lower-level officials to encourage them to speak out without scruples.When the government encounters major issues, it often collects and discusses the system to listen to the opinions of many parties, and the people can also write and speak.The government also set up a large number of academic officials who are only engaged in academic careers, such as proofreading and compiling books. The "Yongle Dadian" and the "Siku Quanshu" compiled in the Qing Dynasty were all compiled by the government, and other compilations are too numerous to list. In short, the traditional Chinese government of scholars made the government a group of scholars. There was no strict division between academics and politics, and politics was often led by academics.The lifeblood of academics is pinned on education, and the spirit of education is pinned on free folk.That is to say, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty published the Six Classics and dismissed hundreds of schools. This motion came from the people, and the doctors of the Five Classics in his Taixue all came from the people.Another example is the Song Dynasty, which adopted Hu Yuan's lecture system in Huzhou, Suzhou, to re-establish the national Taixue system, and hired him to take charge of the administration and teaching affairs of the Taixue.Taking these two examples, it can be seen that the education system under the tradition of the scholar-government in Chinese history looks like a complete set of public education from top to bottom.But in fact, in terms of its inner spirit, it is all hosted and led by the private lectures of the civil society below.In contrast, Chinese folk private lectures have been based on Confucianism of Confucius, Mencius and Confucianism for two thousand years.Therefore, the traditional concept of the Chinese people for two thousand years is that Confucianism is a scholar, and a scholar is a Confucian.Confucianism has become the highest leader of the scholar-government in Chinese history. Of course, in the long-term historical process, there may be various twists and turns and changes.For example, during the Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, a new kind of gentry family status emerged in Chinese society, which was almost a feudal aristocracy in disguise.However, it was only in the Qin and Han dynasties that the status of the literati was raised too much, while the government system above still followed the scale of the Qin and Han dynasties. It cannot be said that ancient feudal politics was restored at that time. At the same time, Buddhism was introduced into China, and foreign religions began to prevail in Chinese society, but they had only a partial influence.At the same time, such as the family status of the gentry, it will not be shaken by Buddhist thoughts.Those who believe in Buddhism and promote Buddhism, on the contrary, mostly come from family members.And the traditional politics below Qin and Han did not change much.Down to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, China returned to unity, and the scale of the traditional government since the Qin and Han Dynasties was greatly expanded, while the power of the gentry family gradually declined and even disappeared.It can be seen that Confucianism was still a major driving force guiding the course of Chinese history at that time.Although Buddhism in China has continued to grow and develop day by day, it cannot shake the general trend of China's historical process, so Chinese Buddhism emerged.The new branches of Buddhism at that time, such as Tiantai, Huayan, and Zen, all melted into a part of Chinese thought.In Chinese culture, only a branch of religion has been added, and religious thought has never occupied the highest leading position in Chinese culture. For example, in the Yuan and Qing dynasties below, Mongolian and Manchurian aliens came to rule, which was also a major change in Chinese history.However, the government system at the top and folk academics at the bottom can still be supported and maintained under the great tradition of Chinese culture, and their original historical process remains unchanged. Some people also say that the political tradition in Chinese history, from the Qin Dynasty down, has always been hereditary from the emperors, with one emperor always occupying the top position in the government. There are only rebellions among the people, and there is no revolution. Modern Western-like democratic politics came.In fact, this statement is also specious.The so-called democratic politics in the modern West, which is run by political parties, is also formed by the long-term accumulation of various factors in its historical evolution.China has a vast land and many people, and the mountains are remote and the transportation is inconvenient.If the government is asked to be elected by the people, it will only cause chaos and division.Moreover, in the traditional Chinese government, election examinations are held once a year in the Han and Tang Dynasties, and once every three years after the Song Dynasty.Government personnel, constant metabolism.Although the government is not elected by the people, the members of the government are all from the people.Another example is the tax law, military service law, etc. All civil affairs are regulated by the government, and it is not the private intention of the emperor or prime minister.The hereditary throne in the government can also express the long-term peace and stability of this government.In Chinese history, autocratic emperors have continued to appear, but it cannot be said that traditional Chinese politics is an autocratic regime.In a long period of peace and stability, there will inevitably be corruption in personnel and slackness in the political system. As long as the government is changed once and the people are reformed, and the old political system is slightly rectified and refreshed, there will be another long period of peace and stability. .And emperors were raised in deep palaces. In Chinese history, there were very few emperors who were wise and outstanding. Most of them were mediocre and weak, and most of them were young and childhood emperors.May I ask how they can dictatorship such a large country with a vast land and many people?Therefore, in Chinese history, there is no need for a revolution like the West. But in modern China, the situation has changed drastically.Internal and external troubles have arisen one after another. Since the Republic of China more than 60 years ago, there has been no peaceful day.If you deduce why it is so, its various external causes and conditions will be ignored for the time being.As far as the traditional political language in Chinese history is concerned, there is a big problem here.This problem is not due to the lack of a hereditary throne under traditional politics.But in Chinese society, there is a lack of a middle class capable of leading the whole society forward.That is the taxi class I mentioned above.Because of this scholarly class in Chinese society, the establishment and continuation of the traditional scholarly government is necessary, and the government and society are in harmony with each other. The so-called literati in Chinese society are not what modern people call intellectuals.The so-called scholars in the old Chinese tradition are those who are not engaged in production.The so-called Dao, the upper part is engaged in politics, and the lower part is engaged in education.It should be only for the sake of the crowd, not for oneself.In fact, there is a religious spirit attached to it.In fact, it is a kind of believer who does not go out and has no church organization.If there is such a religion, it should be called Confucianism.Confucius is its leader.The ancient classic "Poetry" handed down by Zhou Gong is equivalent to the "Old Testament" in Christianity.What the disciples of Confucianism passed down is like the "New Testament" in Christianity.It's just that there is no name, no organization, and no specific rituals of worship.Therefore, compared with other religions, if it does not become a religion.As I said above, due to different nations, different cultures, and different histories, there are differences.If Western concepts must be used to measure Chinese facts, the Chinese nation will appear to be a nation with no religion or belief, or a nation with only some low-level superstitions.Let me ask you a huge nation, with only some low-level superstitions and no lofty common beliefs, how can this nation not be scattered, not divided, grow bigger day by day, and move forward together towards a big goal of history and culture.It goes on for so long, without stopping.How can it be that the autocracy of the emperors of all dynasties in China can make it reach this state?If you only read Chinese history carefully, you will know that this is definitely not the case. However, since westernization spread to the east, one side has been constantly bullied by imperialism, and the other side has been constantly oppressed by capitalism.Enriching the country and strengthening the army has not always been the interest of Chinese scholars.For nearly a hundred years, Nai also had to turn to this goal.The results were not seen in a hurry, but his original beliefs were inevitably gradually shifted.The status of the scholar class in society will inevitably gradually disappear.It is empty to call for the politics of the whole people, but the masses of the people are all private and cannot be controlled.The old politics collapsed rapidly, and the new politics suddenly became difficult to establish. In the course of Western history, from the feudal society in the ancient times to the modern capitalist society, there is still a gap in their Christian spirit, so that their society will not immediately fall into the abyss of pure utilitarianism.Moreover, their imperialist colonial policy has also moved forward with their capitalism, allowing their capitalist connotation toxins to vent outward, and the society is prosperous for a while without feeling sick.But since the two world wars, things have been very different.Religious beliefs have declined sharply, and there is a sigh of lost God.The imperialist colonial policy cannot be recovered, and the connotative poison of capitalism is radiated inside the society.Not only communism is materialistic, but capitalism is also materialistic.What guides politics is entirely utilitarianism and materialism, let alone morality and ideals.The current Western society will obviously have to change. Chinese society, in terms of its great tradition, has always valued morality over utilitarianism, so capitalism and imperialism have never been staged in Chinese history.But in modern China, there has been a drastic change, vying for Westernization and prosperity.Under the great political turmoil, capitalism is not easy to grow, and communism has gained power.Of course, all kinds of political and social changes in modern China are still controlled by the intellectuals of the middle class.But this generation of intellectuals has lost the spirit of the old Chinese traditional scholars, no common lofty ideals, and only a few new theories and new knowledge from the West, but they can't be put together into a whole.Behind it, there is neither a profound background of cultural traditions, nor the cordial support of the general public, nor the backing of emerging capitalist forces, so this kind of political power is only floating and cannot be stabilized.How the new regime can be stabilized after that is still a problem.At least this regime should be rooted in the traditional culture of its own nation, and at least there should be a middle class that can lead the whole society forward, and this class must have common lofty beliefs and lofty ideals, from which power is generated, and the top is engaged in politics, To engage in education below, so that the whole society does not make plans for selfish and pure utilitarian interests, this is exactly a topic that Chinese traditional culture should focus on. Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Three People's Principles, on the one hand, preserved the old traditions of Chinese culture, on the other hand, adopted the new world trend, reconciled and compromised, and revealed a major program.But now how to adapt to reality, constantly enrich its specific content, and how to make this doctrine become the common belief and common ideal of the new class of scholars in Chinese society, and not fall into the trap of the West, but only become a political call of a political party.This is one thing that the Chinese are now working hard on. China and South Korea have had a very close cultural relationship since the end of the Yin Dynasty and the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty.For three thousand years, this relationship has never been interrupted.Therefore, the historical process of China and South Korea is roughly the same.The modern two countries have also been impacted by Western cultural forces and have been divided.Now, there should be a common road between China and South Korea on the National Avenue.It is not easy to abandon one's own old culture and follow a set of different cultures of other nations to achieve success.What's more, Western culture is currently undergoing transformation, not only the clues have been seen, but the signs are very strong.Since the West has to make some changes, it is by no means a good idea for us to follow them forever.This matter needs the joint efforts of middle-class intellectuals in the two countries to severely damage the new taxi class in society.Confucianism and Confucianism undoubtedly have their deep foundation and profound influence in Korea, just like in China.Now, if the new taxi classes of the two countries can rebuild their common beliefs and common ideals, they will have a common goal in terms of politics, education, and the direction of the whole society of the two countries, so that the two countries can The same tends to be stable and stable.This is not only a blessing for China and South Korea, but also will enable mankind all over the world to gain a new light and open a new path in the cultural confusion.This matter seems far away, but we intellectuals in China and South Korea should have this awareness and make this effort. epilogue Regarding the topic "Traditional Politics in Chinese History", I especially like the word "tradition" because the word "tradition" is extremely important. Any nation, any country must have its traditions, and it has not been uprooted from the ground and born out of thin air to form a nation and country without tradition. Westerners attach great importance to their own traditions. For example, France has French traditions, Britain has British traditions, and the United States has American traditions. Therefore, Britain is not all like France, and the United States is not all like Britain. We orientals also have our oriental traditions, such as China, Korea, and Japan, don't they also have their own traditions.If we want to learn from Westerners, we should also learn from their spirit of respecting tradition, so as to respect our own traditions in the East.Respecting the tradition is not keeping the old. Under the respective traditions, we might as well have our own innovations. Speaking of politics, today we want to implement our new politics, but we should not forget our old traditions.In other words, China's new politics should be implemented in China, and South Korea's new politics should be implemented in South Korea. The new politics of the United States, Britain, and France should not and cannot be implemented in China and South Korea. Briefly speaking today, there are three key points in the implementation of new politics: (1) One's own historical and cultural traditions and national personality, which is where the tradition of a nation and a country lies. (2) The actual situation of one's own society has changed with the times. (3) World trends. Because of the previous item, it is necessary to respect tradition.Because of the last two items, although the tradition must be respected, it must be changed at any time.But no matter how you change, you can't lose your tradition.For example, Seoul can only be transformed into a new Seoul, and Seoul cannot be transformed into Paris, London, New York, or Washington. But what I said above is easier said than done.Therefore, in every nation and every country, there must be intellectuals with foresight to study and advocate. This research should mainly be done from oneself, and it is not expensive to copy from other nations or countries.This research cannot be urgently awaited in a short period of time, nor can it be completed by the wisdom and cleverness of one or two people. Therefore, the political upper class, and even the whole society, must respect their own intellectuals, allow them to study freely, and be ready to accept their guidance at any time. And our intellectuals should also have self-respect and self-respect, so as to reach the stage of self-consciousness and spontaneity, only then can the new politics of truly saving the nation and the country emerge. (Speech at Yonsei University in South Korea, September 1974, published in the supplement of "Central Daily")