Chapter 4 Re-discussion on the evolution of Chinese society

Studying close to others, admiring the West, and seeking each other separately.For example, in the study of history, economic history, social history, etc. must be separated from political history, and there can be more than ten or twenty kinds of analysis.However, the unity can be divided, and the division must be more valuable than the ability to unite.The history of China and the West is not limited in the first place, and they must follow the same path. For example, in social history, China and the West are obviously different, and the process is also different, and those who study history must accept it as one type.Marx divided western society into serf society, feudal society, capitalist society, and communist society. Based on the theory of western history, it is irrelevant whether it is proper or not. In society, there are many disputes, and there is no consensus.However, it is already clear that Chinese society has not embarked on the Western road.However, Chinese people believe that China is still a feudal society, which is equivalent to the Middle Ages in the West.

Yu Chang said that there was feudal politics in ancient China, which was different from the feudal society in the Middle Ages of the West.Chinese feudal politics, from the Xia and Shang to the Zhou Dynasty, has evolved over a long period of time.It is also like whether there was a serf society in the West before, the ancient history is vague, so don't look into it.Under the feudal politics of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, Gu can also be called a feudal society at that time, clearly divided into two classes: nobles and commoners.But civilians were by no means serfs, as evidenced by various documents of the Western Zhou Dynasty.Between the nobles and commoners, there was an intermediate class, which was the so-called "scholar" at that time. The book "Guanzi" originated in the Warring States Period, and the book clearly puts forward the four classes of scholars, farmers, workers, and merchants.Yu Gu said that Chinese society from the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period should be called the "Four Peoples' Society".However, since the Warring States period, there has been a gradual evolution, and the distinction can still be added to see that the process is different from that of Western society.

It is not discussed in detail when the class of scholars began.However, when Guan Zhong and Bao Shuya were in Duke Huan of Qi, their backgrounds were obviously not noble, but they should be a scholar.Before that, there were still scholars.Afterwards, more and more came out, until the status of Confucius as a scholar was established.Later generations also called it Confucianism. "Shuowen": "Confucianism is called a warlock." It can be seen that Confucianism is a scholar.A warlock is like an artist.Ritual, music, archery, royal, calligraphy, and mathematics were the six arts at that time. If you can master more than one art, you can pass through the aristocratic class for appointment, and even be able to govern the country and become a minister.In the "Chunqiu Zuoshi Zhuan", from Guan Zhong to Confucius, there are many other examples, so I won't list them here.

After Confucianism, there was Mo, and Mo was also a scholar, and he called himself a concurrent scholar.Below Confucianism and Mohism, a hundred schools of thought competed and thrived, and they all belonged to scholars.Due to the rise of the scholar class, the noble class gradually declined.I named it "Youshi Society" during the Warring States Period.By the time Qin destroyed the Six Kingdoms, feudal politics came to an end, followed by prefectural and county politics, and the society was still a society of scholars.As far as Qin is concerned, the selection of oriental travellers, from Shang'an, Fan Sui, and Cai Ze, to Lu Buwei and his guests, are all travellers.Li Si is the prime minister and also a traveler.Meng Tian is a general, his ancestors came from Qi, and he is also a tourist.Seventy doctoral officers are all wanderers.In the reign of Emperor Qinshihuang, there were probably many tourists.The nobles surnamed Ying did not see anyone in power.His crown prince, Fusu, was also in Mengtian's army.However, even if the Qin Dynasty is called an autocratic politics, it can be seen that it is by no means an aristocratic politics.Politics affects society, and society affects politics.At that time, China was a society of pilgrims, and the government couldn't help it.That is to say, the main driving force of Qin's unification of the world is also the scholars of the six countries, not the nobles of Qin.

The rise of Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty, the Conglong Group at that time was actually a Yishi Group.Anyone who can master one skill is a scholar, regardless of civil or martial arts, Xiao He and Han Xin are both scholars.Zhang Liang and Chen Ping should be called scholars.Shusun Tong, Lou Jing, Lu Jia, and Li Shiqi's disciples are also He Mo Feishi.Even if it is like Shangshan Sihao, it is also a scholar.Unaware of the changing times, Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty wanted to restore the ancient feudalism. Without the Liu family, he could not be king, and without military merits, he wanted to establish a government that cooperated with nobles and soldiers.Its meaning is also why I don't want Liu's surname to be king from generation to generation, so as to last forever.On this level, Han Gaozu's political awareness is actually inferior to that of Qin Shihuang.However, Gaozu regards the common people as the son of heaven, which is different from the emperor who regards the aristocratic tradition as the son of heaven.Later generations only called the early Han Dynasty a civilian government, but in fact, Lu Buwei, Li Si, and Meng Tianzhilun were all common people.Therefore, Qin Shihuang was no longer an aristocratic government, so why did Han Gaozu create another aristocratic government.The end of the matter cannot be known for a long time.

At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Wang Shu, who had a different surname, was exiled.Among the kings with the same surname, there are scholars and scholars, especially the author. In the south, he is like Huainan Wang An, and in the north, he is like Hejian Wang De.At the time of Emperor Jing, the chaos of the seven kingdoms of Wu and Chu had been put down.During the reign of Emperor Wu, the size and structure of the central government had to be changed.The most important thing is to clearly transform the mixed regime of nobles and soldiers since the founding of the country into a regime of scholars under it.In the first place, he was not allowed to be a minister unless he was appointed a marquis, but Emperor Wu worshiped Gong Sunhong as his minister, so he was specially named Marquis of Pingjin.Gongsun Hong is a herdsman in the East China Sea. He cured "Gongyang Chunqiu" and was recommended by a virtuous person to join the government. He was not an aristocrat or a soldier.

During the reign of Emperor Wu, the Taixue was built again, and the Taixue students were born, the high ones were officials, and the low ones were officials.Lang is the guard of the royal palace, and the official is a member of the local government.If you have achievements as an official, you must become a man.Then Lang was assigned to various official positions inside and outside the court.Because of this system, from Emperor Xuan of the Han Dynasty onwards, all the ministers were born as scholars.The bureaucrats inside and outside the court are all filled by scholars.Therefore, the government of the Han Dynasty, from Emperor Wu down, definitely became a government of scholars.Gao Zu's intention to restore the feudal regime failed, and under Han Wu, the world was unified, and the tourists disappeared.Therefore, Yu Te called the people below Han and Wu the "Lang Li Society".Although it is a creation theory, it has historical evidence.

It started with the rise of Confucianism and Mohism, and scholars have replaced the aristocracy and become the center of social leadership.Since Qin Shihuang and Han Wudi, the governments above were unable to change this trend, so they had to formally establish a scholar government to respond to society.Therefore, neither the society at that time can be called a feudal society, nor the government at that time can be called an autocratic government. These are all evidenced by historical facts and cannot be compared with nouns. At that time, Taixue education was mainly based on Confucianism with Doctor of Five Classics.A scholar in the rural areas of the society, from a Tai student to a Langli, was appointed as a government official.If you retreat to the wild, you will respect your ancestors and sympathize with your family, so as to support and teach, not only within the door of one's family.This kind of clan concept has been passed down from the feudal era.From the perspective of Confucianism, it cannot be called wrong.It is not as good as a legacy of a child full of gold.If you pass on the scriptures from generation to generation, you can be a minister from generation to generation.So although there were no hereditary nobles, a hereditary gentry gradually formed.

The gentry was formed in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Down to the Three Kingdoms, the central government collapsed, and the society of gentry officials also transformed into a family society.For example, Yuan Shao's family has four generations and three fathers, which is a great family.Another example is Zhuge Liang, whose first family background is two thousand stones, and also a great family name, so the three brothers are divided into Wei, Shu, and Wu, and they are all well-known.The list goes on and on.However, Cao Cao's rise was humble, and he was deeply jealous of his family status. Kong Rong, Yang Xiu, and Xun He, who went out of their family status, were all met with misfortune, but they were ultimately helpless in the general trend of society.Therefore, Wei and Jin were transferred, and the government was gradually controlled by family status.Under the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the government changed, but the family was prosperous and did not waver with politics.Yu therefore called this period the "family society".

The family society began in the late Han Dynasty and began to decline in the middle and late Tang Dynasty, which lasted for more than 700 years.The privilege of family status was not stipulated by the government at first, which is different from the previous feudal system.After troubled times, such as the split of the Three Kingdoms, the partial stability of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the chaos of the Five Hus, the Dichan of the Southern Dynasty, the division of the East and the West in the Northern Dynasty, the northern and southern regimes perished one after another, and the Sui Dynasty was also subverted one after another.The political situation was extremely turbulent. The southern gates were supported by the newly created areas along the Yangtze River, while the northern gates were under the Hu regime, but they always maintained their existence.Until the unification of the Tang Dynasty, the great fortune came again, but the family still stood.There should be a reason for this.

Yu Zeng made a long article on the relationship between the academic culture of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and the family status at that time in detail.Building a family in this period can not only protect itself, but also maintain traditional Chinese culture.In addition to Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty, literature and historiography all have a tendency to continue to grow.Politics is chaotic at the top, while society is at the bottom.From the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, the protection of the life of the historical nation was also the power of the family at that time.Even if it is said that the family background at that time was a nobleman in disguise, it should not be underestimated. People in recent times regard Zhuang Laoqing's talk as the same as his family status at that time, and this is not the case.The maintenance of family status is by no means the result of talking about it.Qingtan only has this gesture in the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties.In the Northern Dynasties, the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Qing talks obviously did not occupy a place.Therefore, if you want to study the common essence and consistent spirit of the family at that time, you must seek it from the traditional Chinese culture, and Confucianism is especially important.In short, the family status was formed in the gentry, and the members of the family are also the so-called scholars in traditional Chinese society, connecting the Han Dynasty and the Sui and Tang Dynasties.China is still a four-civil society, one class of scholars is still the center of society.Combining political history and academic history to integrate and seek it, the so-called scholars at that time were mostly limited to family status, with a special shape and style, and the difference was only in this. In other words, the so-called scholars at that time either settled in the south, or cooperated with the Hu and Han in the north, or worked hard to reunify the prosperity and make it more prosperous like the Sui and Tang. Most of the main characters were born in the family.At that time, people in the middle class should never be classified as one of the leaders of traditional Chinese society.This meaning must be deeply understood. As for the content of family history, in detail, there are four different aspects of the late Han Dynasty, the Three Kingdoms, the Western Jin Dynasty, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Southern Dynasty, the Wuhu Dynasty, the Northern Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty. oneness.And then seek its consistent inheritance with the former Han Dynasty and later Song Dynasty.This should be sought from the combination of social history, political history, and academic history.If you know its division, you should also know its combination.Know its change, but also know its constant.It is impossible to have a family status in this period, but suddenly it is still a feudal society. In the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the northern vassals and towns were separated, and the imperial court selected scholars based on poetry, prose and literature, and the tradition of family status finally withered.The next one is Jinshi frivolous.At that time, the so-called scholars had lost the support of their families, and had no special education from the court and public to cultivate them. In general, they had lost the inner spirit of being a scholar.The society also lost its leadership center, politics and academics collapsed one after another, the Tang Dynasty died and the Five Dynasties followed.As far as the historical situation is concerned, the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms cannot be compared with the period from the late Han Dynasty to the Three Kingdoms.From the beginning of the Qin Dynasty onwards, China's history has also experienced times of decline and chaos, but they cannot be called dark times.If one must seek the dark age in Chinese history, then only the late Tang and the Five Dynasties are left behind.At that time, politics was chaotic at the top, academics were declining at the bottom, the leading center of scholars had lost its existence, and the traditional society had not completely collapsed.Especially in the ten countries in the south, the social foundation has not yet changed greatly, and the cultural lifeline has not yet been completely extinguished, but it is in extreme shaking.If there is no name for it, I can call it "dark society". With the rise of the Song Dynasty, the politics were rough and safe, and the imperial court knew that it was extremely important to support scholars.However, as far as Chinese history is concerned, the official revival of the traditional taxi class has been sixty or seventy years after Song Xing.There is Hu Yuan in education, and Fan Zhongyan in politics. We must wait for these two people to come out, and then we will see the so-called scholars of Chinese tradition again.However, at that time society no longer had family status, and the government selected scholars through examinations, and all Jinshi came from white clothes.This situation lasted until the end of the Qing Dynasty when Yu Te named it "the society in white clothes".Baiyi rate rose from the countryside, and its situation was similar to that of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.The difference is that the government's examination system has been greatly opened up, and printing has been invented among the people, and books are distributed more easily than before.Therefore, after the rise of the Chaju system in the Han Dynasty, there was a family status, but with the revival of the scholar class in the Song Dynasty, there was no longer a family status. At that time, folk academics spread, and besides printing, there were academies to give lectures.Both printing and academies started as far back as the Tang Dynasty.However, it had a big impact on society and caused a big effect, which began in the Song Dynasty.The government of the Song Dynasty was poor and weak, far from being comparable to that of the Tang Dynasty, and the prosperity of social learning was not comparable to that of the Song Dynasty.The government of the Southern Song Dynasty became poorer and weaker, while academics became more prosperous. Mongolia took over, and the political situation changed drastically.At that time, scholars, the so-called scholars in the tradition, led Dumen not to be officials, but to hide among the people, and their job was to give lectures.The flourishing of the Academy was in the Ling Song Dynasty, and then in the Ming Dynasty.There have been many academies in the thousand years since the Song Dynasty, but the Yuan Dynasty was the most prosperous, unparalleled.Therefore, although the academics of the Yuan Dynasty, such as classics, history and literature, could not follow the Song Dynasty, they were not far behind when compared with the Ming Dynasty.In the early Yuan Dynasty, Huang Dongfa, Wang Houzhai, Hu Shenzhi, and Ma Duanlin were all worthy of being the great Confucians of the world.In the era of subjugation in Chinese history, only the early Yuan Dynasty was the most academically prosperous.The founders of the Ming Dynasty, such as Liu Ji and Song Lian, were also cultivated in the Yuan Dynasty.In terms of its scale, it is not inferior to the founding states of the Han, Tang, and Song dynasties, but it is still more than that.The imperial examination system in the Ming Dynasty was also inherited from the Yuan Dynasty.The "Four Books" and "Five Classics" were established as the standards of the imperial examination, and they were also plagiarized from the Yuan Dynasty.Therefore, in the Yuan Dynasty, the political changes were great, but the society did not follow the great changes.Academic cultural traditions remain the same.At that time, there was no family background, and the class of white-clothed scholars still remained the leading center of society.What kind of power does the scholar class have to achieve this? This should be found in the latent spirit of learning from Hu Yuan and Fan Zhongyan.And the contributions of Lian, Luo, Guan, and Min Confucianism can also be seen. The Manchu Qing Dynasty entered the customs, and the Minzhi Festival of the Ming Dynasty was highly resistant, and the academics were profound. At that time, the characters were flourishing, and the sound and light were shining brightly, especially in the early Yuan Dynasty.When the regimes of the past dynasties changed, there was almost no match.The government died at the top, Gu Tinglin called it the death of the country.But the social group can still survive in the world.Chinese history and culture still preserve its great tradition.Although the alien regime of the Qing court controlled China for more than two hundred and forty years, Chinese society was still solidified, the spirit was still there, and the cultural relics were abundant.Before Xinhai in the late Qing Dynasty, the people of the country advocated revolution, that is, they called on the adherents of the Ming Dynasty.The author, especially, was found in the "Guo Quintessence Journal" recited by the crowd at that time.The wind spreads, people's hearts are excited, and the influence is profound, far more than the propaganda of Western American and French revolutions.The influence of the lower society and the political coordination of the upper class, the cultural tradition of its own root, is more powerful and quicker than the encouragement and dispersion of external influences, which can be seen from this. As mentioned above, China has transformed from the ancient feudal aristocratic society into the society of the four peoples, which dates back to Confucius and Confucianism until the end of the Qing Dynasty.For two thousand and four hundred years, as a class of scholars, if they advance to the top, they will interfere with politics.If you retreat, you will preside over education and encourage the atmosphere.The top is a scholar-bureaucrat, and the bottom is a gentleman. Academics are produced in the cultivation of human relations, and then academics lead politics.The vast land and the people will always maintain its long-lasting, vast and unified landscape, and will never embark on the road of imperialist capitalism. There will always be a traditional cultural spirit that dominates it.It is very difficult to understand why this is so unless we have a deep understanding of the organization and application of the unique Chinese society of the four peoples. People in recent times often say that China is still at the stage of rural society, but they don't know that Chinese cities have risen for more than two thousand and hundreds of years. They are the capitals of successive dynasties, such as Chang'an, Luoyang, Nanjing, Kaifeng, Hangzhou and Yanjing, and Fu Its prosperity and decline, such as Linzi in the Warring States Period, Handan and Tao in Zhao Dynasty, and the four special towns in the Song Dynasty, etc. are not counted.Such as Wu at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, Guangzhou after the unification of the Qin Dynasty, Yangzhou after the Han Dynasty, and Chengdu in Sichuan.A poem from the Tang Dynasty, "Wrap a hundred thousand guan in your waist, ride a crane to Yangzhou".During the Huangchao Rebellion, 100,000 Dashi merchants in Guangzhou were killed.Jin Wushu crossed the south of the Yangtze River, and 500,000 people died in the city of Suzhou.Even a brief reading of Marco Polo's travel notes can also be seen that there were cities all over China at that time.Banknotes began to be used in the Southern Song Dynasty, and flourished in the Yuan Dynasty.The bank exchange system was also established in Shanxi in the early Qing Dynasty.As far as commodities go abroad, such as Han silk, Tang tea, and Song porcelain, everyone knows it, so I won’t bother to list them in detail.Therefore, Chinese society, for two thousand years, has been a society where agriculture, industry, and commerce flourished at the same time. As for the national military service system, it was established in the Han Dynasty.Below the Three Kingdoms there were troops stationed in the field, Tang had government soldiers, and Ming had guard soldiers. Although not all farmers were soldiers, all soldiers were required to be farmers.The unity of soldiers and farmers will always be a traditional system in Chinese history.External military force, such as the Han Dynasty against the Xiongnu, and the Tang Dynasty against the Turks, their brilliant achievements in conquests are also shining brightly.Wealth does not produce capitalism.By virtue of its strength, imperialism does not arise.There have been such opportunities in history, but we will never step into this realm and keep this peaceful and stable system of the four peoples' society forever.Above the peasants, workers, merchants, and soldiers of all colors, there is still the rank of a scholar, who presides over the leadership center of society and politics. Compared with Western society, Greece and Rome had serfs, but China did not.In the Middle Ages, there were feudal aristocrats, armed fortresses, and big landlords in churches, but there were none in China.After the rise of the Renaissance city, its overseas colonization and even the rise of capitalist large enterprises, and China has no such thing.There is a class of scholars in Chinese society who hold the leadership center of political education, and there is no such thing in the West.If one can calmly respect specific examples from historical evolution and compare them one by one, the differences between Chinese and Western societies can be clearly seen. Since the social system is different, the politics built on it is also different.For example, the civil government in ancient Greece in the West was only established in each small city, and it could not be expanded into a country.The military regime of the Roman Empire, and the rise of the modern state after the Middle Ages, and the evolution of the so-called theocracy, monarchy, and civil rights are unprecedented in Chinese history.Below the Qin and Han Dynasties, the unified central government of the whole country was neither theocracy nor civil power, but it could not be regarded as the monarchy either. The territory of modern Western countries is only as large as a province in China, and they can still be ruled by monarchy.In China since the Qin Dynasty, in traditional politics, the monarch is the highest when it comes to position, the officials are divided into governing when it comes to positions, and each has his own discretion when it comes to power.For example, the elections in the Han Dynasty and the examinations in the Tang Dynasty and below all have functions, and their power does not rest with the monarch.The imperial court employs people according to the income obtained through the election examination.Therefore, the traditional government in China from the Qin Dynasty down can only be called a "scholar government", or it can be called a "bureaucratic government", and the bureaucracy is run by scholars.And by no means an aristocratic military or merchant government. Moreover, the emperor and the government are also different, and the royal family cannot be recognized as the government.There are stipulations for the division of duties among hundreds of officials, and it is not subject to the monarchy, and Udemu this government is a government of autocratic monarchy.The position of the monarch is the highest in the government. From the monarch to the next, all officials in the prime minister are all scholars.On top of the four peoples' society, there is the establishment of a scholar-official government, which integrates the government and society together.Moreover, the election examinations and admission quotas are all allocated nationwide.With many household registrations and heavy taxes, the number of admissions for election examinations will also increase accordingly.Therefore, the government bureaucracy is equally distributed among all regions of the country.However, in the promotion and dismissal of the civil service system, in remote areas, the culture is low, the talents are slightly inferior, and it is relatively rare to get a high position.Although the throne is hereditary, the crown prince must receive the same education as the scholars.The right position is the king, and it is also time to choose the one who is the best in learning, talent, and morality among the officials, and then the king is also a scholar.The ability of the monarch and ministers to work together is the root of this.Therefore, Chinese and Western societies are different, and governments are also different.Regardless of its superiority or inferiority, if the two sides are different, the history exists and can be repeated.People in recent times prefer to explain China according to Western history, but it is not appropriate. Over the past hundred years, China has been bullied and oppressed by Western imperialist capitalism, and it wants to change its traditions and imitate them.As a result, the society changed drastically, and the class of scholars who had been the center of social leadership for two to three thousand years also gradually declined.As of late, it's almost gone.The spirit of the scholars of the past is gone.The capitalists of industrial and commercial enterprises are immature and cannot definitely take on the responsibility of leading the society.As a result, the whole society is really like a mess of sand, and has to wait for the arrangement of the government.And the government calls for democracy. How can the people govern?Moreover, the modern capitalist society and its democratic government in the West have also been promoted through a long period of Zen progression to what they are today.What it has achieved, how can it be achieved overnight.The traditional structure of Chinese society today has been destroyed.And its foundation has been buried deep and thick for two or three thousand years, and it is still difficult to dig out it.What kind of state will China's society become in the present? It is difficult to see what it looks like without people with great insight and foresight.The blind man rides a blind horse, facing a deep pool in the middle of the night, which can be sung in today's Chinese society. There are still those who make progress.Looking at the history of both China and the West, it can be said that the Chinese government is based on society, while the Western government only relies on society.Therefore, the Chinese government from the Qin Dynasty down was actually composed of social scholars. Although the royal family occupies a high position in the government system and is respected, it must not be said that the royal family is the government.Foreign relatives and eunuchs intervened in the government, and the government collapsed immediately, but the social tradition continued as before.Therefore, Gu Tinglin has the distinction of subjugating the country and subjugating the world.From the Song Dynasty onwards, the Mongols and the Manchus were dominated by foreign races twice, while the social traditions of China have not changed yet.The rise and fall of dynasties and the change of government have happened frequently since Qin Dynasty.However, the Yuan and Qing dynasties were major changes, but they must still be based on Chinese society.Therefore, according to the Song and Ming dynasties, the country was subjugated, while the spirit of traditional Chinese culture was established at the grassroots level of society, which is consistent and consistent, so it can be said that it is still the world of Chinese tradition. Compared with Western history, Greece did not have a state, but Rome had a state, but its state was established by the government, not by society.Therefore, the Roman Empire was not dominated by the Romans, and the fall of the empire still had nothing to do with the Romans.The rise of the modern state in Europe was first established in the government.If the country is established by society, at least Portugal and Spain do not need to be divided into two countries, as in Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Norway.But Austria and Hungary cannot become a country.And below the Middle Ages, all of Western Europe, speaking Latin and believing in Jesus, can be established as a country.European and Western society, in the same world, has always been a multinational state. Therefore, Chinese history can be said to have a society and a country. Its rise and fall refer to the rise and fall, the rise and fall refers to the society, and the rise and fall refers to the state.But after death there is prosperity, and after decline there is prosperity.From the perspective of Western history, it can be said that there are societies but no countries. Therefore, there are ups and downs in various places in Western history, but there is no rise and fall.For example, Greece is still a Greece, and Rome is still a Rome, and each of them has declined and never recovered.Today's modern countries, such as Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and Belgium, as well as Britain, France, etc., Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and Belgium have all declined and will no longer be prosperous, and Britain and France will probably do the same.This is one of the main points of difference between Western history and Chinese history, and it is absolutely necessary to know. This is the only reason why modern Western Europeans like to talk about freedom and strive for democracy, and they have repeatedly revolutionized.This is a statement to the society, not to the country.However, Chinese history is as true as the recent Confucian Liang Rengong said, there is no revolution.It can be called a revolution in the West, but it is limited to the social nature, and it cannot be called a national revolution.As in ancient Chinese history, the abdication of Yao and Shun, the revolutions of Tang and Wu, the so-called revolutions in Chinese tradition are really international rather than social.According to Western history, it is nothing more than one country's conquest of another country, so how can we talk about revolution. Now, to put it a little deeper, it can be said that Western culture has only stopped at the stage of social goods and life, and has not advanced to a higher level, such as the political and moral stage in the collective life of the Chinese so-called governance of the country and peace of the world. .Therefore, modern Western democratic politics is only based on the opinions of the majority of the society for a while, and there is no morality at a higher level than society.Compared with the Zhiping Dao in the Chinese cultural tradition, the distance between them is actually very far, and it cannot be discussed in the same way. From the perspective of Chinese history, the Qin Dynasty was unified, and it can be said that Qin eliminated the six countries.On a deeper level, it was the emerging class of scholars in Chinese society at that time that replaced the ancient feudal aristocratic class.Therefore, the government in the era of Qin Shihuang had already taken the embryonic form of a scholar-official government.Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty regarded the common people as the son of heaven, and Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty officially established the government of scholars.The Chinese scholar class is produced by society, not by the government.Therefore, the change from feudalism to prefectures and counties in Chinese history can be described as a great revolution and a great progress in Chinese political history.Down to the Three Kingdoms, the Cao family in the Wei Dynasty, and the Sima family in the Jin Dynasty. From then on, except for the Wuhu and Northern Dynasties, which were foreign regimes, the governments in the south were not established by the middle class of society.Even the Five Hu and Northern Dynasties must cooperate with the scholar class in Chinese society to establish their government.Even down to the Yuan and Qing dynasties, this is not the case. Modern Western democratic governments and parliamentary party politics are also organized by the society. It cannot be said that the government can surpass its society.Therefore, in Western society, it can only be said that there are intellectuals, not the Chinese scholar class.Therefore, it is the bourgeoisie in the western society that obtains the foresight power, and even masters the power.First, parliamentary elections are all about assets, and the right to vote and to be elected is based on the taxpayer's qualifications.Therefore, democratic governments in the modern West must adopt the opinions of the bourgeoisie in society, so that their society quickly becomes a capitalist society.And its government quickly became an imperialist government, obtaining industrial and commercial raw materials from outside and promoting industrial and commercial products.This will allow the country's capital society to continue to prosper, and all the poisons that arise from it can also be vented outward, so that the country's society temporarily sees its benefits but does not see its harm.But since the collapse of imperialism, the poison of capitalism has turned to internal leakage.As a result, its society began to collapse day by day, and if there was a tendency to draw on it all day long.It can also be said that it first had its inherent illness of the capitalist society, and then the collapse of imperialism. Any society, going through a certain period of time, has no need to change.That is to say, in Chinese society, as Yu said, since feudalism, scholars, officials, family status, and white clothes have also undergone changes in multiple classes.However, it is still a tradition of a scholar.In the past hundred years, it has suddenly come into contact with the Western imperialist capitalist society, and it has become rich and powerful and aggressive.And envious of its good reputation of democracy and freedom, without further investigation, but seeking a change in the past, and following the pace of progress.Unfortunately, Western society is also on the verge of having to change.But change should be permanent, and all changes should not depart from their origins. We should first reveal the program of its great source, so that all changes will tend to this program and not violate it. Such changes can be permanent and have a future.Natural science and material civilization have advanced by leaps and bounds from the upbringing of the western capitalist society. Everyone aims to improve material life and strives for it.And I don't know the trend of life, the social structure, it is not all in the material.The progress of material things will lead to the decline of life and the disintegration of society. Let me give you a word about marriage.The Western marriage system is mainly based on government laws. The relationship between husband and wife must be recognized by law, and the law is governed by the government.The Chinese marriage system is mainly based on social customs, and the foundation of the relationship between husband and wife is based on etiquette rather than law, and people rather than politics.Rituals become customs, and etiquette and customs originate from morality, which is a matter of life and society.It cannot be said that it originated from the system, but a matter of politics and law.Therefore, in the West, the proportion of criminal law exceeds that of propriety and justice, while in China, the proportion of propriety and justice exceeds that of criminal law.But today it can also be said that Western Xingfa is only social, while Chinese etiquette and righteousness are political.In fact, the more important factor for the stability of the Western marriage system lies in religion.Religion is still social, not political.However, since the rise of science, the decline of religious belief, and the daily life of the capitalist society, the marriage system is more prone to disintegration. Japan is a branch of Chinese culture, and its social form is also Chinese.Its system of male-female relations and couples is even more conservative.But since the past twenty years, the social economy has leapt, and the overall life has changed accordingly, and marriage has also become abnormal.The foundation of the family is shaken, young children are old, all are affected.This is actually based on material prosperity, and human relationships tend to cool down.The groups are scattered, and social organizations turn to the business management of industrial and commercial groups, rather than the emotional harmony and harmony between people.Wealth is increasing day by day, and the taste of life is decreasing day by day.In the past, without vigilance and rectification, there is a real fear of human morality and morality, and the world will perish. Reminiscing about our country, from before the 1911 century to the present, everyone has regarded Westernization as the only way to save themselves.Singing a high theory of cultural self-condemnation.The group believes that the Chinese only know that there are private virtues, but they don't know that there are public morals. "Everyone sweeps the snow in front of his own door, and don't care about the frost on others' roofs." This poem was quoted and criticized severely.I don't know that the snow in front of the door needs to be swept away urgently, and each household should sweep it by itself. The frost on the roof tiles is on other houses, so they don't care.Husband and wife are the beginning of human relations, the defense between men and women is broken, sexual intercourse is rampant, marriage and divorce, all of which hinder the road of life, are more than just like snow in front of the door.If you want to clean it up, you need everyone, both men and women, to know their own shame and take care of themselves. Is this not a personal virtue?When private morality is lost, how can there be public morality?Today's factories are getting bigger and bigger, there is noise in the sky, there is sewage in the ground, from the birds above, and the fish swimming below, Xu is not harmed.Capitalism is a disaster for mankind. It started with black slave trade in Africa and opium sales in Guangzhou. Today, there is the rise of communism.Everything that is property is a crime.Is it public morality to liquidate the struggle and concentrate on reform through labor? Since the Song Dynasty in our country, for 800 years, "University" has become the first must-read for literate people.To regulate the family, govern the country, and bring peace to the world is based on self-cultivation.Wealth the house, morality nourishes the body, self-cultivation should focus on virtue, not wealth.In the early years of the Republic of China, there was a self-cultivation department in elementary schools, which taught people how to behave in society. This body was obviously private to everyone.Then private morality is public morality.Later, it was changed to a civics course, teaching people how to be a citizen under the government, so the focus of life, if not in private, but in public.May I ask whether everyone's life is private or public?How can selflessness be fair? In today's capitalist society, all material property and capital are just trying to be incorporated into society, which is actually a kind of publicization.There are many skyscrapers with more than 40 or 50 floors in the urban area, and these are all so-called rich houses.And everyone who lives in seclusion in the house has no virtue to moisten the body.It only moistens the house, not the body.Collecting this body without morality and impurity, its life is dry and dry, but it can only be bound by the law and limited to citizens.Life is owned by wealth, not privately.Therefore, with regard to wealth, there must be competition with each other.If it's not related to wealth, they will do whatever they want without knowing what to do.The euphemistic name is "freedom", and the law is helpless.Today's free capitalist society has obviously moved towards this situation.But the current Chinese society follows this trend, takes it as a model, and moves towards it.Its final destination is clearly in sight. Now let’s look back at the entire evolution history of Chinese society and make a comprehensive statement.The rise of Confucianism and Mohism, the transformation of the ancient feudal society into the current society of the four peoples, if it is the first major change in the history of Chinese social evolution, it is actually not a big change.Confucianism is like Confucius. In his heart, he still regards the ancient feudal nobles as Guimou, Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu as sages, and Yi Yin and Duke Zhou as virtuous ministers. It means to overthrow and overthrow any revolution.Mozi, the Mo family, also held the same attitude.Praise poetry and books, respect the ancients.But Confucius admired the Duke of Zhou, and Mozi followed the example of Dayu, and he valued people equally if he wanted it.The ancients and the present are the same person.Nobles and commoners are also one person.One must abide by humanity and keep one's personality.Only by being a person in society can one be a monarch or a bureaucrat in the government.If Mr. Gou Qi did not behave in the way of a monarch, then Yi Yin released Tai Jia, and Zhou Gong took over as the king.Taijia repents, and Yiyin welcomes him back from Tong Palace.Since King Cheng was long, he knew the way to be a king, and the Duke of Zhou also returned to politics.Yao and Shun had abdication, Tang and Wu had revolution, and all institutional actions of the government were based on humanism. What Confucius and Mo advocated are still humane.But the way is down, not up.Those who are above have their way, and the Sri Lankan government can lead the society.If the Tao is at the bottom, the society will rise up and lead the government.This is what Confucianism and Mohism mean.But Confucius advocated "benevolence" in Taoism, and Mozi advocated "universal love" and righteousness in Taoism. The difference belongs to the second meaning, which is in method.Its higher first meaning, in principle, is no different.Therefore, Confucius and Mo Tong seemed to be anti-nobles, but they were not anti-nobility. What they opposed lay in their lack of morality.Now there are hundreds of schools, all of which are the same.However, Han Fei ruled the people above and below, and ruled the people with the monarch. His way was the narrowest, and it was believed by future generations of Chinese people.Therefore, although Confucius and Mo both ridiculed the superiors, they were respected by the superiors at that time.The so-called wanderer society, from Qin Dynasty to late Chu Dynasty, was well-fed and valued. It was by no means a class struggle between nobles and ordinary people, such as the so-called overthrow and overthrow of modern people.And the feudal society in which the nobles and ordinary people were clearly divided into classes in ancient times has finally come to an end and dissipated into nothingness. Therefore, although there have been changes between the feudal society and the society of the four peoples, there is still a great tradition that remains unchanged. This is where the spirit of our Chinese culture has always been inherited.Today, it is collectively referred to as "humane society", that is, "human heart society", or "human-oriented society", that is, a society based on human nature and human heart.Cultivate this way to lead the society forward, the first is called "sage king and sage", and the latter is called "scholar".The king of work, the teacher of work.The king is above, and the teacher is below.Government society, from the theory of "Tao", all belong to one body.Since the Qin Dynasty, China has been unified. For a king or a prince, there must be teachers and the same scholars.And Confucius was the most holy teacher, and his status in society was especially higher than that of the monarchs of all dynasties.It must be understood that this is the characteristic of Chinese society. Greece has a nation, a culture, and a society, but there is no country, and therefore no government.Each city has an elected council, which handles the public affairs of its cities, that's all.Rome had a state, a government, and it was controlled by military juntas.Expand outward and become an empire.Under the rule of the empire, there can be various societies.Such as Italy, Greece, Egypt, France and other regions are under the same government, but not the same society.The empire collapsed, and the feudal society in the Middle Ages was ruled by the armed fortresses of the nobles and the church. The situation was very different from the feudal society in ancient China.In feudal China, there is a government above society.In Western feudalism, there is no government above society.There is no way for the society to abide by the common freedom, and there is no way for the government to abide by the common freedom.Dao belongs to the church and power belongs to the government, which is very different from China. And the rise of the modern state, although small in scale, has inherited the Roman tradition.The rise of the city after the Renaissance inherited the Greek tradition.Therefore, the cities along the Italian peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea in northern Europe became countries later.西、葡海外寻金，风声所播，荷、比、英、法继起。罗马、希腊两传统，渐汇为一，于是遂有民主政府议会政治之建立。在内为民主，属希腊型。在外为帝国，属罗马型。于是西方现代国家，乃始建基于社会之上，似若走上了中国道路。但其社会乃是一工商社会，进而变成资本主义之社会。与中国人道人心人本社会之本质，仍有其大不同处。 中国社会非无工商业，非无城市，其事远在战国时已然。惟与希腊不同。希腊有城市工商业，有社会文化，而不能有国家。中国先秦则两者兼有。逮汉、唐一统，其国家与政府，又与罗马不同。罗马由军人政府扩展向外而成为帝国。汉、唐政府乃由全国社会之向心凝结而成，虽曰大一统，而非向外征服，故不得目之曰帝国。汉起丰沛，唐起太原，立国中心，则并不在此。 故中国四千年来之社会，实一贯相承为一人道人心人本之社会。修明此道以为社会之领导中心者，自孔子以下，其职任全在士。孔子曰：“士志于道，而耻恶衣恶食者，未足与议。”西方社会则建本于工商业，如希腊。其国家则建本于军人武力，如罗马。故西方传统重视富强，恶衣恶食乃其所耻。近代之帝国主义与资本主义渊源胥由此。中国传统，向不重富强。今则一慕富强，而近百年来之中国社会，乃由此而变质。士之一阶层，已在社会中急剧消失。社会失所领导，领导者乃在国外，不在国内。姑无论西方社会亦己临必变之际，而邯郸学步，一变故常，外袭他人，事亦不易。即谓有成，亦不啻亡天下以求存国。Without skin, there will be no hair attached.其或终有理想之新士出，以领导吾国人，从四千年旧传统中，获得一适应当前之新出路，则诚所馨香以祷矣。 （一九七七年作，一九八七年五月《动象月刊》载）