Chapter 8 Chapter VII Li Zhi - A Philosopher Conflicting With Himself

In 1602, Li Zhi killed himself with a bayonet in prison. After his death, he was called self-sacrifice.This comment cannot but cast doubt on it.Li Zhi's works were not tolerated at the time and were repeatedly banned by the government, but those who admired him continued to reprint them in spite of the ban.These works, despite their vast length, did not open up a new path in history.Li Zhi is not lacking in courage, but generally speaking, if a writer of this type discovers a noble truth and is willing to sacrifice himself for it, his writing will express a kind of burning self-satisfaction and euphoria.These characteristics cannot be seen in Li Zhi's works.

A few commentators actually said that Li Zhi took the position of the lower classes and criticized the landlord class who exploited the peasants.This kind of argument is naturally even more ridiculous.Ever since he left the prefect of Yao'an in 1580, he had been living on donations from his friends, the landowners and gentlemen, and he never felt it wrong to accept them.This society allowed him to eat without farming, but he never suggested that it should be reorganized.If he criticizes his landlord and bureaucratic friends in some places, it only focuses on his personal character and morality, and never mentions the economic standpoint. At the same time, he also clearly pointed out that this kind of comment can also be applied to himself.On several occasions, he was both self-critical and self-pitying.In a letter to his assistant Zhou Sijing, he said: "Don't die this year, don't die next year, wait for death every year, wait for death, but wait for disasters. However, disasters don't come immediately, and death doesn't come immediately. It’s hard to escape the sea of ​​misery in this world. But how!” In this tone, there is no sense of self-sacrifice, that is to say, the writer did not see through the evils of society with the sharp eyesight of burning rhinoceros and candles. Make the determination to "die with you".

But there is no doubt that Li Zhi has intellectual concern for this society.This kind of concern has something in common with freedom of belief. There is a socio-economic background behind it, and there is also a special connection with his social environment. In particular, his personal psychological and philosophical characteristics cannot be ignored.These conditions can only further constitute Li Zhi as a distinctive Chinese scholar, rather than a European-style figure under similar conditions. Li Zhi is a believer in Confucianism. Before 1587, he had fulfilled all the obligations to the family in accordance with the ethical principles of Confucianism.The next year, he shaved his hair and became a monk at the age of sixty-one.The reason for shaving his hair is that his environment has allowed him to abandon the rigid and restrained life and seek the free development of personality.This is not the same as a recluse in the general sense. No matter from the point of view of reason or social relations, his words and deeds since then actually represent the conscience of literati across the country.When he was interrogated after being arrested, he replied: "There are many books written by sinners, which are beneficial to the holy religion." This spirit is similar to Luther's stubbornness.He believes that everyone can interpret the classics according to their own opinions, which is also similar to the purpose of the religious revolution, that is, the attitude that several believers are elders.But Li Zhi did not have the self-confidence of Luther, nor the self-confidence of Erasmus.Before he passed away after committing suicide, he wrote a line of Wang Wei's poem with his fingers to explain his death: "What does the seventy old man want!" His negative and pessimistic mood is clearly visible.

Li Zhi's pessimism is not only personal, but also the era he lives in.Traditional politics has been frozen, and new life like the Reformation or Renaissance cannot be bred in such an environment.The social environment compresses personal intellectual freedom to a very small limit, and people's integrity and honesty can only grow into shrubs, not jungles.Geng Dingzhi, the capital censor, was Li Zhi's friend, residence and opponent in debates. Li Zhi had repeatedly criticized him mercilessly, criticizing him for lack of integrity.However, Li Zhi also dissected himself with the same merciless attitude, accusing himself of lack of integrity; But he used the excuse of having a heart; it was clear that the hair was not plucked out, and he called Yang Zhu a thief. Animals and things advance, heart and mouth contradict." He also suspected that he used Buddhist cassocks to cover up "the heart of merchants" and "to deceive the world and steal his name." ".The crux of this strange phenomenon lies in the fierce battle of inner conflicts that cannot be resolved by themselves.

Li Zhi was born in Quanzhou, Fujian Province in 1527.His family name was originally Lin, but later changed to Li.The sixth Zulinnu was a giant merchant in Quanzhou, who traded in the Persian Gulf and married a "color-eyed woman", who may be a woman of the Indian Europa race.For a considerable period of time thereafter, his ancestors still interacted with mixed-race families and Muslim believers. It was not until the generation of his great-grandfather that the international color of his family disappeared. Li Zhi himself was influenced by traditional Chinese culture since he was a child. grown up.

In Li Zhi's generation, his family fortune has long since fallen. In 1552, he won the imperial examination.After winning the imperial examination, due to financial difficulties, he could no longer patiently fight for the qualifications of Jinshi and the first degree, that is, he was required to serve in the government as usual.After that, he spent many years ups and downs in the lower bureaucrats, with a low position and a small salary, depressed and frustrated. In 1559, Ding You was suspended because of his father's death.After completing his service, he went to Beijing to apply for a job. After waiting for one year and eight months, he got a position as an instructor of the Imperial College.During the standby period, he made a living by teaching.He had 4 sons and 3 daughters, but all but the eldest daughter died young.According to Li Zhi himself, once he didn't eat much for 7 days, and in the end he was so hungry that he couldn't tell the difference between "rice millet" and "millet millet".

In 1563 his grandfather died.According to the custom at that time, his superiors and friends gave him quite generous gifts.At this point, he made an important decision.He bought half of the total amount in Henan, where he was an instructor, to buy real estate for his wife and daughter's food and clothing, and let them stay in Henan, and he took the remaining half back to Fujian by himself.What he needs to bury is not only the newly deceased grandfather, but also the five spiritual pivots of three generations of ancestors.According to the general customs, when burying the ancestors, one must pay attention to Fengshui and choose an auspicious place in order to hope that the future generations will flourish, otherwise it is better to park the coffin for a long time.At that time, Li Zhi was still struggling in the lower ranks of civil servants. Although his grandfather had just passed away, his great-grandfather's coffin had been parked for 50 years. The environment forced him to adapt to the reality and bury him together if possible. high expectations.The solution of this problem made Li Zhi feel that he had fulfilled his duty many years later.

However, this decision has increased the burden on his wife.She doesn't want to support the family alone thousands of miles away from home, and she also has her own filial piety.Her mother, who was a widow when she was young, raised her through hard work, and now she was missing her daughter, crying day and night until she was "blind in both eyes."But li zhi's money was limited after all, and it was impossible for him to take his family back and forth outside of the funeral, so he could only reluctantly refuse her request to return to quanzhou together.They separated for three years, and when they reunited, she told him that her two daughters died of malnutrition due to starvation in the local area.Of course, this unfortunate news made him very sad. That night, he and his wife "faced each other by candlelight, and it was really like a dream."

Li Zhi served as an instructor of Confucianism in Gongcheng, Henan Province for 3 years, as an instructor in Nanjing and Beijing Guozijian for several months each, as a secretary in the Ministry of Rites for 5 years, and as a member of the Ministry of Criminal Justice in Nanjing for nearly 5 years before he was finally appointed as Yao'an in Yunnan. Prefect of the prefecture, in 1577.Before becoming the prefect, his official salary was extremely meager, not even enough to make ends meet.Only when he was a magistrate did he have various "routine" and other incomes, and gradually saved some money.

This seemingly legal and illegal income did not make Li Zhi feel uneasy.He is not like Hai Rui, who thinks that the slightest income beyond the official salary quota is corruption.He is famous in the present and later generations for his special practice and insight, but he has the same view as ordinary people on this issue, that is, the purpose of being an official is fame and fortune.His honesty lies in being able to admit this purpose frankly, without using noble guises such as cutting out selfish desires and serving the country and the people.This touches on a more fundamental question: Should we allow everyone to publicly admit their own selfishness, that is, their own personal intentions, so as to avoid duplicity and yin and yang confusion?

It was his wife who made Li Zhi feel uneasy.She is a standard good wife and mother, as long as it is beneficial to her husband's career, she can endure everything and even sacrifice everything, but she cannot understand her husband's spiritual world.He wholeheartedly wants to create an independent thought and personality, and without independence, his heart will not be satisfied.It was also based on this spirit that he decided to retire after Yao'an's term expired in 1580.He was only 53 years old at the time, and the lawsuit was prosperous and smooth sailing. This kind of unexpected decision was also a kind of shock to her.However, she was still obedient, and moved with her husband to Huang'an, Huguang, where they lived with the Gunn brothers.However, Li Zhi later fell out with Geng Ding and decided to move to live in a nearby Buddhist temple in Macheng, so she had to return alone to her hometown of Quanzhou, where she had been parted for 20 years.Until 1587, before she died, she appealed to him many times, asking him to return to Quanzhou.When the news of her death came, Li Zhi wrote six poems expressing his sadness at the time.In the poem, she was praised for her virtuousness, saying that "compassion can be shared, and she is good at running the family". The husband and wife have never turned against each other for 40 years, but because they couldn't understand the grand ambition of "husband Zhisihai", in the letter to his son-in-law, Li Zhi mentioned After hearing the bad news, there was not a single night in which I did not dream of her. The sadness of the text was unbearable to read.Several years later, he also advised his friends not to shave their hair and become a monk, especially those with close relatives should think twice before doing so.This exhortation may be regarded as a self-confession of this contradictory philosopher. Li Zhi's insistence on going his own way must be observed in conjunction with the deep-rooted family values ​​of two thousand years, so that people can understand it.Because according to the custom at that time, once he returned to Quanzhou, what he needed to take care of must not be limited to his own family.He is a well-known figure in the clan, and he has also served as a magistrate, so he will definitely be caught in countless invitations and entanglements and cannot extricate himself. As early as 20 or 30 years ago, Li Zhi already had this experience when his father died at home.At that time, Japanese pirates invaded the country, and there was a shortage of food in the city.Although he was only a civil servant of the lowest rank, he had to accept the support of his relatives and took on the obligation of finding food for a large family of more than 20 people.He Liangjun, who was at the same time as him, the author of "Siyou Zhai Cong Shuo", mentioned that he was surrounded by relatives who had taken refuge in Nanjing and asked to solve the problem of food.Another famous essayist, Gui Youguang, complained to his friends in letters that he could not take refuge elsewhere.Because if he leaves Kunshan, he must bring "more than a hundred" clansmen with him. This kind of care for the clan is not a temporary responsibility, nor is it a moral obligation, but has its profound socio-economic and historical background. Our empire is not a pure "closed society"--a society in which occupations are largely inherited from one generation to the next. --However, the freedom it gives people to choose their profession is still not much.If a peasant family wanted to live a stable life and gain social prestige, the only way was to study and become an official.However, this road is long and long, and it is difficult to achieve the goal only by the efforts of one person or one generation.The usual way is that the ancestors who start a business within a family work continuously, save themselves, accumulate money, first consolidate the ownership of their own arable land, and then obtain the mortgage of other people's arable land, and gradually become landlords.This process often takes several generations.With the basic economic conditions, the children and grandchildren will have the opportunity to receive education.Among them, the self-sacrifice of mothers and wives is also indispensable in most cases.So on the surface, the pen and ink in the examination room can make a generation of poor people become prominent immediately, but in fact, the bleak operation behind the scenes lasted for a long time.This kind of honor obtained after years of struggle, the recipient is only one person or at most a few people, but its basis is the whole family.Therefore, honor recipients must take full moral responsibility to their families and maintain a collective concept of sharing weal and woe. This collective idea is not limited to the confines of a small family.If a person becomes an official after studying, if he realizes that his success is closely related to generations of ancestors, he cannot completely ignore the welfare of other members of his family.What's more, this kind of care and help will not be paid for free, because no one can predict that their children and grandchildren will not be supported by them in the future.This economic stake is abstracted and sublimated into morality.Of course, this kind of moral concept cannot be followed by all the people. From Hai Rui's anthology, we can see that brothers, uncles and nephews competed for property and even fought to death.But this kind of situation just shows the importance of education from the negative side, and educated people must never use interests to harm righteousness. When society as a whole did not open other paths for its members, most people like Li Zhi had accepted this way of life without thinking.If Li Zhi returned to Quanzhou, he would be expected and persecuted by many farmers. However, Li Zhi at that time had already experienced the torture of life, and at the same time studied Buddhism and Taoism.While reconsidering the meaning of life and rebuilding his outlook on life, he can no longer stick to the rules.In other words, he cannot take the life path of studying, being an official, and buying land as a matter of course, and urgently needs to get rid of the collective concept caused by blood relationship. Naturally, his relatives couldn't let go of such a departure from tradition.But the greater the pressure from his relatives, the stronger his resistance.In a letter to Zeng Jiquan, Li Zhi said that the reason why he lost his hair was "because the idlers in the family always wanted me to go back, and they came from thousands of miles to force me and force me with ordinary things, so I shaved my hair to show that I would not return." , Ordinary matters are also resolutely refused to reason with."The so-called idlers, etc., are his brothers or uncles and nephews; mundane matters, whether it is buying land or building ancestral halls and schools, or using power to intervene in lawsuits, although the words are vague, they generally cannot be classified into these categories.Most interestingly, his family still designated a nephew as his heir despite his wishes.The way of resistance caused by this incident is also interesting. He has a suicide note titled "Yuyue", which mentions his nephew, "If Li Siguan comes, tell him to cry in a hurry to make a good show, and you will also decide Do not send anyone to report my death."This suicide note was drafted in 1596, and it seems that he has been a monk for 8 years. The monastery where Li Zhi lived was located on a hill outside Macheng, called "Zhi Buddha Temple".It is not a formal temple but just a private Buddhist hall, but the scale is quite grand.There are main hall, left and right side rooms in the courtyard, as well as the dormitory for monks and guest house for guests.The abode that Li Zhi lived in was located on the last hilltop of the whole hospital. Looking around, you can have a panoramic view of the water and the mountains.In the heyday of Zhifoyuan, there were more than 40 monks in the whole courtyard, and Fang Wen, who led the monks, was a friend of Li Zhi.Some of the monks also accompanied their disciples and disciples. Zhifoyuan has never registered with the government, has not received a formal license, and therefore has not paid taxes to the government.It does not belong to any denomination and is not governed by a board of directors.Li Zhi is the only elder and trust elder in the whole hospital.Most of the funds for its establishment and maintenance come from his own donations to the outside world.He often wrote to his friends, asking for "half salary" assistance, or "help me for a year with the salary of the third grade".Some friends, Zhou Ji lived his life for 20 years.He had never experienced a rich life in the past, but after founding the Buddhist temple, there was no sign of poverty. Before Li Zhi was appointed as the prefect of Yao'an, he already enjoyed the reputation of a thinker and was admired by many scholars.Some of these admirers went on to become prosperous, or served as ministers, or as governors.Li Zhi received their help, even if it was not frequent, it was by no means unique.And this monetary relationship is not one-sided.His friend Jiao Hong was also a well-known scholar who was not good at managing money.When scorched father's 80th birthday, friends said sandy-loamed party, some unexpectedly came from thousands of miles away.Li Zhi was a sponsor of this grand event. He wrote to the participants and told them to "bring more firewood and rice in the boat". The difference between this kind of money donation and exchange is that the recipients have a common idea, or a common purpose.From a psychological point of view, this relationship is still a by-product of using morality as a policy of governance.Because the ideological basis of this policy is that everything in the universe is closely related.The reason why a person or a thing has characteristics or functions depends on its relationship with other people or other things.A person's noble character is because his aspirations and behaviors are appreciated by others; his insight is profound because he analyzes and understands other things correctly.Therefore, the purpose of human life cannot be cooperation, mutual assistance and shared enjoyment.But, in reality, why are all people more or less selfish?This question disturbs the well-educated, and the high-ranking officials are particularly disturbed because of the important task of governing the country.It stands to reason that they have been brought up to promote the spirit of serving the public; however, once it comes into contact with reality, this spirit is often just a sacred mountain on the sea, or simply disappears.Sometimes they are more selfish than illiterate fools.This unease, or the inner battle that develops from it, needs to be relieved in an appropriate way.Like-minded research and discussion can trigger each other's inspiration, deeply explore the true meaning of life, so that the inner anxiety can be relieved.Therefore, they had close contacts. Besides meeting and discussing, they also corresponded with each other and published anthologies.After Li Zhi became a monk, he still traveled frequently to participate in these activities.At that time, there was no question that travel expenses must be reimbursed, or that speeches should be paid for. These issues can be properly arranged between exchanges and communication according to custom.With Li Zhi's reputation and the attitude of a beggar monk, he no longer has to hesitate about economic issues. His directional debates with Geng contributed to and cemented his belief in individual freedom.Years later, he still sees the debate as an important turning point in his life. In 1580, after Yao An resigned from office, Li Zhi moved to Huang'an, Huguang, where he served as a guest and a teacher in Geng's family.At this time, the father of the job orientation passed away not long ago, and the four brothers were all at home.Among these four people, Li Zhi and his second brother Geng Tingli have very close contacts.Some people mistakenly think that the two of them are more consistent in thought, but they are not.The difference between them is much greater than the difference between Li Zhi and his elder brother Geng Dingzhi.Geng Tingli is talented and intelligent, but also an honest person.If he finds that the theories in the "Four Books" and "Five Classics" conflict with his own thoughts, he can't let it go easily and follow what others say.This contradiction brought him distress and prompted him to think, sometimes wandering alone in the mountains and valleys.In the end, he finally "suddenly penetrated" and confirmed that the benevolence of Confucianism is egoism. When a person becomes a saint, he transforms his self into nothingness and enters the state of silence, so that he is "soundless and odorless".This kind of idealism suspended in the air can only be hidden deep in the heart, and cannot be applied to reality, and has developed into a standard of ethics and morality.So in real life, Geng Tingli never took the exam and never served as an official.However, Li Zhi believes that "dressing and eating are equal to the physics of human relations", which is undoubtedly completely different from Geng Theorem's thinking.The reason why they can live in harmony is not because of the flexibility of Geng Ting-li's academic theory, but because of his gentle and relaxed personality.He often uses Zen-like maneuvers to avoid confrontation in debates, and expresses his opinions in seemingly irrelevant language, forcing his opponents to succumb after thinking.Because he believes that the truth he has mastered is based on profound knowledge; if he insists on one-sided stubbornness, it is tantamount to giving up his broad mind.Therefore, when Geng Tingli was alive, he was always able to mediate the conflict between his elder brother and Li Zhi in his unique way. In the history of thought, the eldest brother, Geng Zhi, is most easily misunderstood by historians.His friends and enemies, Li Zhi, described him as a hypocrite; Huang Zongxi's "Ming Confucianism Case" also pointed out that his thinking was inconsistent.However, few people can see that this philosopher is also trying his best to find a truth that has both metaphysical basis and can be integrated into daily life.He accepts the philosophies of Buddhism and Taoism, and believes that the best and the most beautiful belong to nothingness, but on the other hand, he believes that any creed cannot be a creed if it cannot be preached clearly in front of foolish men and women.After much consideration, he proposed that human reason can be deep or shallow, thick or thin, some concentrated and some scattered; in social life, politics is different from agriculture, and agriculture is different from business.Based on this analysis, he has begun to point out that the principles of ethics and morals should be different from those of physics and geography, so the standards of governance should also be different from philosophical thoughts.This theory was unacceptable to the monist cosmologists at the time.The conflict between him and Li Zhi is also inevitable, because both of them are ready to put their theories into action.So Li Zhi accused Geng of being dishonest and inconsistent with his words and deeds; Geng pointed out that Li Zhi flaunted innovation, but the purpose of innovation was still innovation. Geng Tingli died in 1584.In the same year, Geng Ding was recalled to Beijing to serve as the censor of Zuo Jindu.In his letter, he pointed out that Li Zhi had misled Geng's children, and this accusation prompted Li Zhi to move to Macheng.Years later, he still thought it was Geng's intentional personal insult to him. Li Zhi likes to be strong and debating, and he doesn't want to be subdued by others. When he was an official, he often confronted his superiors.After falling out with Geng Xing, he paid more attention to his independence and unruly.According to the custom of this dynasty, a retired official is called a "township official", which means that he still has the status of an official and is subject to the restraint of local officials.Local officials could invite him to help with matters of interest or to attend important ceremonies.This kind of rights and obligations may be honored by others, but it is a mental pressure for Li Zhi.He said: "If you abandon your official position and go home, you will be under the care of your grandparents in this prefecture and county. Come and greet, go and see off; distribute the gold, set up a banquet; distribute the gold shaft, and congratulate Shoudan. If you are not cautious, you will lose your favor. Then disaster will come." Shaving one's head to become a monk, in addition to avoiding the entanglement of relatives, getting rid of these restraints is also an important factor. Although Li Zhi entered Buddhism, he did not accept the precepts, nor did he participate in the prayers of the monks.His love of cleanliness has become a hobby, his clothes are spotless, and he often sweeps the floor, so that "several people don't give them a broom".In many respects, Li Zhi maintained the lifestyle of a bureaucratic scholar.For example, even if he goes out for a short distance, he still takes a sedan chair; he does not want to read the book himself, but asks his assistant to read it aloud to save his eyesight. In the ten years after his retirement, Li Zhi's main work was writing.Most of his works were printed and printed during his lifetime. There is a room in Zhifoyuan dedicated to stacking boards. The contents of his works are very extensive, including the interpretation of Confucian classics, the observation of historical materials, the criticism of literary works, and the development of ethical philosophy. The forms include essays, essays, poems, letters and so on.However, although it involves a wide range of areas, it does not mean that it has many profound attainments.The history he wrote has no precise examination of historical facts and no sign of a self-contained system.Large sections of articles are transcribed according to historical books, the only difference is that chapters are changed according to my own opinions, arranged in order, and some comments are added.When he comes into contact with novels, what he focuses on is not the artistic value and creation method of the work, that is to say, he does not pay attention to the theme and meaning of the work, as well as the story structure, character description, narrative interweaving and other techniques.He left the characteristics of literary creation, and specialized in studying whether the characters in the novel are morally noble and whether their actions are appropriate, just like commenting on real people and facts.Furthermore, even when elaborating philosophical theories, they often only start with fragments and write them as short essays, lacking systematic elaboration, as a lengthy discourse with a rigorous structure.What's more, most of the scholars at that time found it difficult to understand "Li Shi's "Book Collection" and "Book Burning" are rare goods." To correctly understand the relationship between China and China, it is necessary to explore the purpose of Li Zhi's writing.His various works all lead to the same goal, focusing on integrating the private interests of scholars with the morality of the public.Starting from this point, his writing is like playing the same symphony with various instruments.Can public-private conflicts be reconciled?If he hasn't come up with the proper answer, at least he has asked the question.It is a pressing question, and one that affects the integrity of the conscience and reason of the scholar.Li Zhi's own experience made him understand the problem more deeply and express it more forcefully.Therefore, his works can still be appreciated by readers.Among them, the heartfelt song was fully expressed in a letter to Geng Zhixing: Li Zhi's embarrassment lies in the fact that after he strongly criticized these characters, he still had to rely on the support of these people for his living.The inconsistency between their words and deeds is a common social phenomenon, and geng zhi is just a more prominent example.Li Zhi himself is not insulated from this, which often makes him feel guilty and refrain from speaking out after making merciless accusations against others.Only when he was intercepted by others and he was unable to retreat, his feelings were like a mighty river, uncontrollable. Among his contemporaries, although Li Zhi enjoys more freedom than others, he has not found the independent status he most longed for after all.This difficulty and conflict forced him to continue writing, and the content of his pen still cannot go beyond the scope of this problem.Even Yuan Zhongdao, who sympathized with him, was puzzled by this situation: Since he is unwilling to become an official because he is dissatisfied with bureaucratic politics, he should stop and forget the world and entertain himself with writing and ink; It is related to politics, coupled with the growing reputation, "disaster follows name".It's no wonder that it led to death. The debate between li zhi and career orientation is based on the good and evil of human nature.This question involves a wide range of aspects, and it is necessary to find a comprehensive answer from the history of Chinese philosophy. The problem can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn Period in the 5th century BC.Confucius did not mention good or bad nature.The core of his theory is "benevolence". "Benevolence" can be good, and the purpose of a gentleman's life is to meet the requirements of "benevolence". What constitutes benevolence, Confucius did not give a clear and direct answer.There are sixty-six occurrences of Ren character Fan in the same book, but no two interpretations are the same.Generally speaking, benevolence has the same concepts as kindness, gentleness, sideliness, and taking the world as one's own responsibility.However, on different occasions, Confucius endowed benevolence with different concepts: "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to yourself", self-restraint, prudent speech, and acting in accordance with etiquette can all be counted as benevolence or close to benevolence; The need for a person to sacrifice his own life is also called "killing one's life to achieve benevolence".Benevolence is the easiest quality to obtain. Anyone who aspires to benevolence can get it.But benevolence is also the most difficult quality to maintain, even for sages, such as Confucius himself, it is difficult not to violate benevolence all the time. Readers of later generations must read and think over and over again these unrelated quotations before they can understand its true connotation.Generally speaking, gentleness, courtesy, and generosity are the primary stages of benevolence.In the process of advancing to a higher stage, one must bring one's own thoughts, words and deeds into its norms, and through continuous accumulation, selfishness can be achieved, and finally selflessness can be achieved.In this way, benevolence is a compulsive force, the highest criterion of action, a quality beyond the world, and the only meaning of life, which is simply the same as the "Tao" of Taoism. The 66 quotations about benevolence in the book provide a metaphysical basis for Confucius' theory and become the basis of the Confucian monistic world view.Although this doctrine does not directly accuse selfishness of being unreasonable, it is self-evident.Because the so-called "self" is just a concept, and cannot be used as a material, which can be hoarded and preserved.The meaning of life is nothing more than expressing concern for others.Only by doing this can it have permanent value.This ideal is close to the teachings of Brahmanism and Buddhism in India.Indian thinkers believe that "self" is a kind of phantom, and there are only countless causal cycles that really exist in the world.Confucianism points out that a person must be in constant contact with the outside world, without this contact, this person is like a blank sheet of paper.In the middle of contact, he may show selfishness, or he may get rid of selfishness and restrain himself from benevolence. According to Confucius, although a person is a sage, he should always be vigilant against unkind thoughts. It can be seen that evil comes from inborn nature.On the other hand, since everyone has the instinct to develop and maintain benevolence, it can also be considered that sexual goodness comes from innate talent. About 150 years after the death of Confucius, the theory of good nature was put forward for the first time.Mencius once said categorically: "Man's nature is good, just like water will flow down. There is nothing bad in people, and everything in water will flow down." The different opinions between Confucius and Mencius reflect the changes in the social environment.Confucius' goal was to expect philosophers and educators like him to replace the hereditary ministers in the small states of the time.Mencius lived in a more turbulent era, when the kingdoms between Qi and Chu adopted the method of mobilizing the whole people to fight against each other.This situation no longer permits the philosopher to study the ease and beauty of private life in a leisurely manner.The urgent task of Mencius is to find a strong man who has the conditions to unify the whole country and who can accept Confucianism as the basis of this great cause.He tried to persuade his object by eloquent words, and led him and his subjects back to their good nature, just like leading a flood to return to the sea, so as to avoid a catastrophe that would kill and overwhelm the wild. The way of Confucius and Mencius defeated the theories of various schools of thought, and since the Han Dynasty, it has become the guiding ideology of ruling the whole country.The further the era develops, the greater the ruler's dependence on it.After the 10th century, that is, during the Tang and Song dynasties, China experienced a huge change: the center of gravity of the economy moved from the dry fields in North China to the paddy fields in Central and South China.The obvious consequence of this is that the internal complexity has increased successively.The bureaucratic class used to be monopolized by the wealthy and powerful families, but now it has changed to be the same as the gentleman class.The generals in the army gradually lost their power to influence politics, and civilian politics was established as the principle of ruling the empire.This change in many ways forced the centralized central government to create new philosophical theories to maintain the thousands of outstanding members of society, that is, scholars who studied.These gentry are the gentry class. Compared with the previous aristocratic gentry, they have a large number of people, a high mobility, and a far wider range of life and knowledge.Therefore, the ethical character of Confucianism alone can no longer fully meet the needs of the times, but must be mixed with new intellectual factors in order to adapt to the new environment. In response to this need, many scholars continued to add new annotations to the writings of Confucius and Mencius, and it was the great Confucianist Zhu Xi of the Song Dynasty who synthesized and reconciled these annotations to form a system of thought.He was the most influential thinker in the Confucian school after Confucius and Mencius, and was revered as a sage after his death.His exposition of Confucian classics is authoritative. His "Four Books Collected Notes" is a textbook prescribed by scholars in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and it is also the standard answer for the imperial examination. His research methods are called "intellectualization", "objectivity", "inductive method", and sometimes even considered to have a "scientific" basis.Zhu Xi read and pondered the historical and philosophical works of the past, and sorted them out.His conclusion is that the rise and fall of various dynasties in history, as well as various natural phenomena in the universe, have a common principle, and they are mutually confirmed.The basis of its theory is that all kinds of things in the universe and the human world are composed of "Qi", and become different "things" through different forms of "Li".The so-called "things" include concrete things such as the sun, moon and stars, as well as abstract ethics such as filial piety, loyalty and trust.This method of confusing the concrete with the abstract is a traditional habit of Chinese thinkers, and it also fits with their monistic worldview.Because they believe that when a person sees a thing, this kind of thing is not isolated and cannot be isolated from the environment.They focus on the function of things.A thing has characteristics because it is related to other things.White things have the quality of white because of the reflection of light, which is seen in the human eye.That is to say, all "things" have actions, the reflection of light seen by human eyes is an action, and being loyal and filial is also an action.Using this point of view, Zhu Xi regards thunder and firecrackers as similar things, because both are "smoldering qi" trying to disperse. Confucius' benevolence, Mencius's theory of good nature, and even the traditional organization and habits of Chinese society are all regarded by Zhu Xi as "the principle of heaven."But people may violate the laws of heaven, because everyone has different temperaments, some are clear and some are turbid.If the turbidity rises, the principles of heaven will be replaced by "human desires".补救的办法是“格物”，也就是接受事物和观察、研究事物。他说：“所谓致知在格物者，言欲致吾之知，在即物而突其理也。盖人心之灵，莫不有知，而天下之物，莫不有理。”通过格物，可以使人发现天理。 事实上，朱熹所使用的方法并不是归纳法，也很难说得上科学性。用类比以说明主题，是战国时代的思想家和政治家常常使用的方法。孟子以水之就下比喻人之性善，其实人性与水性并没有联系，所谓相似，不过是存在于孟子的主观之中。朱熹的格物，在方法上也与之相同。在很多场合之下，他假借现实的形态以描写一种抽象的观念。他认为一草一木都包涵了“理”，因此他所格的“物”包括自然界。在他看来，传统的社会习惯，乃是人的天赋性格。但是他在作出结论时，却总是用自然界之“理”去支持孔孟伦理之“理”。这也就是以类似之处代替逻辑。 对朱熹的思想系统，可以从不同的角度批判。其中重要的一个方面是，假如人之愚顽不肖，如他所说在于气浊，则这种生理性的缺点就应当采取机械性的方式补救，例如着眼于遗传，或者如道家的注重吐纳。然而朱熹反对这样的办法。他认为这些气浊的人应该接受教育，经过不断的努力，才可能接近真理。这样一来，朱熹之一个全体的、有组织的宇宙，已成问题，即伦理之理有别于物理之理。 大凡高度的概括，总带有想象的成分。尤其是在现代科学尚未发达的时代，哲学家不可能说明宇宙就是这样，而只能假定宇宙就是这样。在这一点上，朱熹和其他哲学家并无区别。既然如此，他所使用的方法就是一种浪费。他的格物，要求别人接触植物、地质、历史和地理等各个学科，但目的不在这些学科的本身上追求真理。因为对任何问题，他的结论已作出于观察之先，而且作出这些结论的也不是他自己，而是孔子和孟子。既然如此，人们就不能不产生疑问：这种博学多闻是否有确切的需要，也就是说，朱熹的成就，是否能和他付出的精力相当？ 朱熹治学的方法可谓“支离”。避免这样支离，另有捷径。此即以每一个人自己的心理，作为结构宇宙的工具，而所谓心理，即包括视觉和听觉，也包括直觉和灵感。宇宙的自然法则和社会的伦理道德合为一体，很难获得实证，但在心理上却可以不言自明。宇宙的伟大与完美，无须有赖分析，就可以在个人的心理上引起合群为善的精神，从而自然而然地领悟到社会道德的真谛。其最高境界，可以使人摆脱日常生活的忧虑，心灵上达到澄澈超然。持这种看法的人，常说“将发未发之际”也就是杂念冰消、情绪宁静之际，此时视觉、听觉、触觉还没有全部开动，而是凭个人的直觉可以领会到宇宙间一种无可形容的美感。 以这种方法治学是为“心学”，和朱熹的“理学”相对。心学派反对理学派累赘的格物致知，提倡直接追求心理的“自然自在”；理学派则认为心学派也大有可以非议之处：宇宙的真实性如果存在于人的心中，任何人都可以由于心的开闭而承认或者拒绝这一真实性。这样，世间的真理就失去了客观的价值，儒家所提倡的宇宙的一元化和道家的“道”、释家的“无”也很难再有区别。一个人可以用参禅的方式寻求顿悟，顿悟之后，所获得澄澈超然的乐趣仅止于一身，而对社会的道德伦理则不再负有责任。耿定理的终身不士就是一例。再则，儒家的经典一贯是士大夫行动的标准和议论的根据，而心学一经风行，各人以直觉为主宰，全部经典就可以弃置不顾。李贽全凭个人的直觉和见解解释经典又是一例。 如果知识分子放弃了正统的儒家观念，则王朝的安全会立即受到威胁。知识分子在政治上是政府中的各级官员，在经济上是中等以上的地主，因而也是这个社会的真正主人。而正统的儒家观念又是维系他们的纽带，除此而外，再无别的因素足以使他们相聚一堂，和衷共济。所以李贽在晚年被捕入狱，虽然也被指控为行为不检，但审判官在审讯的时候对此并不斤斤计较，所注意的乃是他“感世诬民”的著作。李贽本人也早就预感到了这一点。他把他的一部著作题为《焚书》，意思是早晚必将付之一炬；另一部著作题为《藏书》，意思是有干时议，必须藏之名山，等待适当的时机再行传播。 李贽与耿定向决裂以后，随即公布了他写给耿定向的函件，指斥他的虚伪。耿定向以眼还眼，如法炮制，也把他写给另一位朋友的信广为抄传，信上说：“昔颜山农（颜钧）于讲学会中忽起就地打滚，曰：'试看我良知！'士友至今传为笑柄。”在这一似乎是漫不经意的开场之后，他跟着就指出，李贽的种种古怪行为，无非是就地打滚之意，目的在于不受拘检，参会禅机。但是耿定向又不无恶意地提到，李贽曾经强迫他的幼弟狎妓，还提到李贽有一次率领僧众，跑到一个寡妇的卧室里化缘。在耿定向看来，这些放荡的行为，也是李贽以良知为主宰，寻求顿悟的方法，与颜山农的就地打滚无异。 李贽在1587年对这种攻击作出答辩。除了关于寡妇的事件以外，他对自己的不拘形迹毫不掩饰。最值得注意的是他对“就地打滚”的评论。他说，他从来没有听到过这一故事，如果真有这件事，只能证明颜山农确实参透了“良知真趣”。他又说：“世间打滚人何限？日夜无休时。大庭广众之中，谄事权贵人以保一日之荣；暗室屋漏之内，为奴颜婢膝事以幸一时之宠。无人不滚，无时不然，无一刻不打赢”当一个人真能领悟到打滚的真趣，则另有境界，此即“当打滚时，内不见已，外不见人，无美于中，无丑于外，不背而身不获，行庭而人不见，内外两忘，身心如一。难矣，难矣！”他认为耿定向的耻笑无损于颜山农，“即千笑万笑、百年笑千年笑，山农不理也。何也？佛法原不为庸众说也，原不为不可语上者说也，原不以恐人笑不敢说而止也”。 以上一段公案，可以看作当时心学派反对理学派的一个事例。李贽与耿定向的个性不同，但是他们之间互相嘲讽侮弄，已经超出了个性的冲突。其中的微妙之处，乃是耿定向并不属于正统的理学派，而是和李贽同属心学派中的泰州学派。仅仅在攻击李贽“未信先横”这个问题上，他的立场近似于理学派。 心学的发展在明代进入高潮。由于王阳明的创造发挥，这种思想已经形成一个完整的系统。王阳明原来也属于朱熹的信徒，据他自己说，他曾经按照朱熹钓方法格物，坐在竹子之前冥思苦想。但是格来格去，始终没有格出一个所以然，自己反而为此病倒。这个故事反映了他相信物质之理和道德之理相通，但是他没有接受理学的类比方法。既然此路不通，他就另辟蹊径，最后终于悟出一个道理，即宇宙间各种事物的“有”，完全出于个人心理上的反映，比如花开花落，如果不被人所看见，花就与心“同归于寂”。所谓天理，就是先天存在于各人心中的、最高尚的原则。忠孝是天理，也是心中自然而然产生的观念。 王阳明受过佛家思想的影响，他的宇宙观也属于一元论。他的所谓“良知”，是自然赋予每一个人的不可缺少的力量。它近似于我们常说的良心。但是良知并不能详尽知悉各种事物的形态功用，具有这种知悉作用的是“意念”。良知只是近似于意念的主宰者，可以立即对意念作出是非善恶的评判。他的思想系统中还有一个主要方面，就是对因果关系的重视。在他看来，一件白的物体的白色乃是因，在观察者的心中产生了白色的感觉才是果。这种对因果关系的理解推导出了他的“知行合一”说。他认为，知识是一种决断，必定引起一种行动。一个人见到美色就发生爱慕，闻到臭味就发生厌恶，见和闻是“知”，爱慕和厌恶则为行，前者立即产生后者。所以，在王阳明看来，“致良知”是很简单的，人可以立时而且自然地“致良知”，但是不断地按照良知行事就很困难。这和孔子关于“仁”的学说颇为相似：凡人立志于仁就可以得到仁，但是每日每时都不违背仁，即在圣贤也不易做到。 王阳明并没有为真理而真理的倾向。和朱熹一样，他的目的也在于利用他的思想系统，去证实他从小接受的儒家教条，以求经世致用。他的方法较之朱熹更为直接，然而这里也埋伏着危险。如果一个人把王阳明的学说看成一种单纯的方法，施用于孔孟教条之前，就很可能发生耿定向所说的“未信先横”，以为自己的灵感可以为真理的主宰。其后果，则可以由于各人的个性和背景而趋向于泛神主义、浪漫主义、个人主义、自由主义、实用主义，甚至无政府主义。这也就是王学的危险之所在。它存在着鼓励各人以自己的良心指导行动，而不顾习惯的道德标准这一趋向。1587年，李贽就走到了这条道路的交叉点。 几个世纪以后，对李贽的缺点，很少有人指斥为过激，而是被认为缺乏前后一致的完整性。他的学说破坏性强而建设性弱。他没有能创造一种思想体系去代替正统的教条，原因不在于他缺乏决心和能力，而在于当时的社会不具备接受改造的条件。和别的思想家一样，当他发现自己的学说没有付诸实施的可能，他就只好把它美术化或神秘化。 李贽的学说一半唯物，一半唯心，这在当时儒家的思想家中并非罕见。这种情形的产生，又可以追究到王阳明。 王阳明所使用的方法简单明白，不像朱熹那样的烦琐累赘。但是在他的体系里，还存在一些关键的问题，例如良知的内涵是什么？良知与意念的关系，是从属还是并行，是调和还是排斥？他应该直接的说良知是一种无法分析的灵感，有如人类为善的可能性属于生命中的奥妙。但是王阳明不如此直截了当。他又含糊地说，良知无善无恶，意念则有善有恶。这些问题，为他的入室弟子王畿作出断然的解答：一个人企图致良知，就应当摈绝意念。理由是，人的肉体和思想，都处于一种流动的状态之下，等于一种幻影，没有绝对的真实性。所以，意念乃是枝节性的牵缠，良知则是永恒的、不借外力的存在。良知超越于各种性格，它的存在寓于无形，有如灵魂，既无年龄性别，也无籍贯个性，更不受生老病死的限制。按照王畿的解释，良知已不再是工具而成了目的，这在实际上已经越出了儒家伦理的范围，而跨进了释家神学的领域。李贽在北京担任礼部司务的时候，经常阅读王阳明和王畿的书，之后他又两度拜访王畿，面聆教益。他对王畿备加推崇，自称无岁不读王畿之书，亦无岁不谈王畿之学，后来又主持翻刻了王畿的《文抄录》，并且为之作序。 按照王畿的学说，一个人就理应集中他的意志，放弃或简化物质生活，避免环境的干扰，以达到无善无恶的至高境界。然则一切的真实性既然只存在于心中，则所谓放弃、简化与避免，也无须见诸行动，而只是存在于精神之中。一个人不存在恶念，他就不会见恶闻恶，更彻底地说，就是世界上根本不存在恶。基于这种的立场和信念，李贽对耿定向的攻击不屑一顾。耿定向说他狎妓，李贽就承认他确实在麻城“出入于花街柳市之间”。但是这种世俗所认为不对的行为在无善无恶的领域中，不足成为指责的根本。在李贽看来，他的行为不过是佛家的“游戏三昧”，道家的“和光同尘”。因之他以“无善无恶”作为标帜，硬是不肯认错示弱，另一方面李贽则并不认为这种自由系每个人都能具有，而只是进入了无善无恶境界的优秀分子的特权。这种优越感，在他的著作中经常流露。 李贽又有他的另一面。当他说到“穿衣吃饭即是人伦物理”，他又站到了王艮这一边。王艮是泰州学派的创始人，也是王阳明的信徒。很多历史学家认为，王艮把王阳明的学说推广而成为“群众运动”，这可以算得是一种历史的误会。因为在明代社会里，并不存在以哲学领导群众运动的可能；如果存在这种可能，与之相联系的历史因素势必引起剧烈的变化，但事实上毫无这种迹象。然则王艮确实在比较广泛的范围里传播了王学，他所说的“百姓日用即道”、“百姓日用条理处，即是圣人之条理处”，又正是王学的发挥。因为王阳明的知行合一说，其宗旨在于知圣人之道，行圣人之志。李贽虽然渴望自由，然而他不能超然物外，对这样堂皇的旗号无动于衷。因此，以学术的流派而论，他始终被认为属于泰州学派。 在第三位姓王的影响之下，李贽重视物质，也重视功利。他仍然不断地提到“心”，但是这已经不是就地打滚、无美于中无丑于外的心，而是考虑到日常需要的心。因为自己有所需要，就推知别人也有同样的需要，这就是孟子所谓“他人有心，予忖度之”。在这些场合中，他的思想已经脱离了形而上学的挂碍，而是以日用常识作为基础。这种态度在他评论历史时尤为明显。 李贽的历史观大多符合于传统的看法，比如他确认王莽为“篡弑盗贼”，指斥张角为“妖贼”。在他看来，历史的治乱，既循环不断，又与“文”“质”相关联。一代人君如果专注于“文”而使之臻于极致，则已经开了祸乱之基；反之，息乱创业之君，则专注于“质”，只求使百姓免于饥寒而不去顾及是否粗粝。这种认为文化与生活水平和国家安全不能相容的看法，是中国传统历史的产物，也是官僚政治的特点。李贽自然无法理解，用中央集权的方式，以为数众多的官僚治理亿万农民，就要求整齐划一、按部就班，不能鼓励特殊分子或特殊成分发展新的技术或创造新的法则。在他所处的时代，文官集团业已丧失了发展技术的可能，也没出对付新的历史问题的能力。社会物质文明（即李贽所谓“文”）往前发展，而国家的法律和组织机构不能随之而改进，势必发生动乱。受到时代的限制，李贽认为历史循环之无法避免，乃是命运的安排，几乎带有神秘的力量，所以也不必再白费心力去寻找任何新的解决方案。这样来看，李贽的唯心论并不彻底，因为他承认了客观的真实性，治乱兴亡并不决定于人的主观，当然更不承认，所谓人心不在，治乱就不成其为治乱这样的理论了。 君主一生事业的成败既为历史循环的后果，李贽对于历代君主的评论，也只是着重在他们适应时代的识见和气魄。对于“天下之重”的责任，李贽则认为应该由宰辅大臣来承担。他所期望于大臣的，是他们的执政的功绩而不是道德的言辞。一个奇才卓识的人，在为公众的福利作出贡献的过程中，决不能过于爱惜声名，因而瞻前顾后，拘束了自己的行动。他可以忍辱负重，也可以不择手段以取得事业上的成功。这种会小节而顾大局的做法被视为正当，其前提是以公众的利益为归依，而在伦理上的解释则是公众道德不同于私人道德，目的纯正则不妨手段不纯。李贽在这些方面的看法，和欧洲哲学家马基雅弗利（Machiavelli）极其相似。 李贽重视历史上对财政经济问题有创造性的执政者。他推崇战国的李悝、汉代的桑弘羊、唐代的杨炎，但是对宋代的王安石却缺乏好感。这当然并非因为王安石在道德上遭到非议，而是因为他的才力不逮他的宏愿，“不知富强之术而必欲富强”。与上述的论点相联系，李贽更为大胆的结论是一个贪官可以为害至小，一个清官却可以危害至大。他尊重海瑞，但是也指出海瑞过于拘泥于传统的道德，只是“万年青草”，“可以傲霜雪而不可以任栋梁者”。对于俞大猷和戚继光，李贽极为倾倒，赞扬说：“此二老者，固嘉、隆间赫赫著闻，而为千百世之人物者也。”在同时代的人物中，他最崇拜张居正，称之为“宰相之杰”，“胆如天大”。张居正死后遭到清算，李贽感到愤愤不平，写信给周思敬责备他不能主持公道，仗义执言，但求保全声名而有负于张居正对他的知遇。 李贽和耿定向的冲突，许多当代的哲学史家把原因归之于他们经济地位的不同。李贽属于地主阶级的下层，所以他对传统有反抗的倾向；耿定向是大地主，所以偏于保守。 这种论点缺乏事实的根据。耿家在黄安确实是有声望的家族，但是李贽的后半生，却一直依附于这样的家族而得以维持相当优裕的生活。他与耿定向决裂以后，随即投奔麻城周家，依靠周思敬和周思久。这周家作为地主望族，较之耿家毫无逊色，何况两家又是姻家世好。另外还有梅家，其社会地位也与耿、周二家相埒。当年麻城（黄安初属麻城，1563年始分治）士人进学中举，几乎为这三家包办。在麻城的时候，李贽还和梅国桢过从甚密，梅国桢后来为《焚书》写作了序言。在晚年，李贽又和漕运总督刘东星有极深的交往。刘东星为沁水人，不仅自己身居高位，而且把女儿嫁给山西阳城的大族王家，成了户部尚书王国光的烟亲。在盛名之下，甚至连亲藩沈王也对李贽感觉兴趣，邀请他去作客。李贽托言严冬不便就道，辞谢未赴。他的最后一位居停为马经纶。此人官居御史，家住通州，赀财富有。他特意为李贽修造了一所“假年别馆”，并且拨出果园菜圃和另一块土地，雇人耕种，以收入作为其客居的供应之资。在李贽的朋辈之中，惟有焦竑家道清贫，但却无妨于这一家在上层社会中的地位。总之，李贽所交往的人都属于社会的上层，而且是这个阶层中的优秀分子。 李贽本人的著作以及有关他的传记资料，从来没有表示出他有参加任何群众运动的痕迹或者企图。他对于工业农业的技术改进和商业的经营管理都毫无兴趣。他的所谓“吃饭穿衣即是人伦物理”，不过是要求高级的官僚以其实际的政绩使百姓受惠，而不是去高谈虚伪的道德，崇尚烦琐的礼仪。但这并不表示李贽自己有意于实践，而只能表示他是一个提倡实践的理论家。至于他对女性的看法，也常常被后人误解。他不承认女性的天赋低劣，在他看来，历史上有一些特殊的女性甚至比男人还要能干，比如他就屡次称颂武则天为“好后”。但是赞扬有成就的女性，并不等于提倡男女平权，宣传妇女解放。一个明显的证据是李贽对寡妇的守节，其褒扬仍然不遗余力。 十分显然，李贽没有创造出一种自成体系的理论，他的片段式的言论，也常有前后矛盾的地方。读者根容易看出他所反对的事物，但不容易看出他所提倡的宗旨。 但是这种前后不一并不能算做李贽最大的缺点。有创造力的思想家，在以大刀阔斧的姿态立论的时候，也不是不能见到自相矛盾的地方。卢梭倡导的个人自由，在他的铺张解说之下，反而成了带有强迫性的为公众服务的精神。李贽的这种矛盾，在古今中外并非罕见。 如果把李贽的优越感和矫饰剔除不计，那么，他的思想面貌还不是难于认识的。他攻击虚伪的伦理道德，也拒绝以传统的历史观作为自己的历史观，但是在更广泛的范围内，他仍然是儒家的信徒。芝佛院内供有孔子像，他途经山东，也到曲阜拜谒孔庙。在李贽看来，儒家的“仁”、道家的“道”和佛家的“无”彼此相通，他攻击虚伪的道德，但同样不是背弃道德。 在一种社会形态之中，道德的标准可以历久不变，但把这些标准在生活中付诸实践，则需要与不同的时代、环境相适应而有所通变。李贽和他同时代的人物所遇到的困难，则是当时政府的施政方针和个人的行动完全凭借道德的指导，而它的标准又过于僵化，过于保守，过于简单，过于肤浅，和社会的实际发展不能适应。本朝开国二百年，始终以“四书”所确定的道德规范作为法律裁判的根据，而没有使用立法的手段，在伦理道德和日常生活之间建立一个“合法”的缓冲地带。因为惟有这种缓冲地带才能为整个社会带来开放的机能，使政府的政治措施得以适合时代的需要，个人独创精神也得以发挥。 这种情况的后果是使社会越来越趋于凝固。两千年前的孔孟之道，在过去曾经是领导和改造社会的力量，至此已成为限制创造的牢笼。在道德的雄旗下，拘谨和雷同被视为高尚的教养，虚伪和欺诈成为官僚生活中不可分离的组成部分，无怪乎李贽要慨乎言之：“其流弊至于今日，阳为道学，阴为富贵！” 如果李贽在某种程度上表现了言行的一致，那么唯一合理的解释也只是他在追求个性与行动的自由，而不是叛离他衷心皈依的儒家宗旨。李贽弃官不仕，别妇抛雏，创建佛院，从事著作，依赖官僚绅士的资助而生活，一直到他在法官面前坚持说他的著述于圣教有益无损，都不出于这样的原则。 对现状既然如此反感，李贽就对张居正产生了特别的同情。我们无法确知李贽和张居正是否见过面，但是至少也有共同的朋友。李贽的前后居停，耿定向和周思敬，都是张居正的亲信。耿定向尤为张居正所器重，1578年出任福建巡抚，主持全省的土地丈量，乃是张居正发动全国丈量的试探和先声。两年之后，张居正以皇帝的名义发布了核实全国耕地的诏书，意图改革赋税，整理财政。这是张居正执政以来最有胆识的尝试，以他当时的权力和威望，如果不是因为突然去世，这一重大措施很可能获得成功。 张