Chapter 6 Chapter Four Significance and Opportunity

Our understanding of genes is improving and adapting every day.And understanding genes, so that we can no longer be dominated by fate.This is the work that liberates us, frees us from science, and allows us to explore the soul.Yes, we are born with certain genes, but that doesn't mean we can't control our destiny.Any scientist, or a father who is observant, doesn’t believe that we are born like blank paper, and we are all shaped by our equipment. The key is that we are born with hardware and acquired software. The problem is not innate”New "Acquired, but innate" and "acquired".It is our nature to be true and to respond to our upbringing.

——Haran, Copland The most important significance of the establishment of the Human Genome Project is to deepen our understanding of human beings, thereby improving our quality of life.Its direct manifestation is the revolution in the field of medicine.What do these revolutions include? Genetic diagnosis, detection and biochip With the continuous advancement of the Human Genome Project, within a few years, people will see an instruction manual describing the human body itself, which is a complete guide to the structure and operation of the human body. More than 5,000 genetic diseases that endanger human health, as well as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, diabetes, hypertension, and mental illness closely related to genetics, can be diagnosed and treated early.In addition, when a newborn is born, if the law permits, his parents can get the child's genome map if they want.This picture will record all the mysteries and privacy of a life.It can not only reveal whether the child is color-blind when he becomes an adult, how tall he will be, whether he will be bald and fat, but also tell Amy exactly what the disease is and when it may kill the child.

According to genetic expert Yang Huanming, in the future, when it is not so expensive to test a person's entire genetic sequence, seeing a doctor will be much more convenient.Record a person's genetic map on a CD. When making a diagnosis, the doctor first opens the CD, checks several possible "candidate genes", and makes clear the important regions, important genes, and important sites; and then looks at what needs attention , because the "situation" of the genome is different, a certain drug is effective for some people, and it is not effective for others, and it may even be life-threatening. According to individual differences, the doctor can prescribe "specific drugs".

The use of genetic technology to screen for various genetic disorders has also been or will be implemented. DNA chips are a revolutionary new technology.The doctor will use the DNA chip to scan someone's genome arrangement to obtain his or her specific genetic information, which can be used to detect and evaluate a person's future mental and physical health. A DNA chip is to put thousands of different DNA fragments on a silicon chip.Genetic differences are marked on the chip, which can provide valuable clues for doctors to sort out and analyze an individual's existing and potential diseases.

Existing screening experiments include breast cancer and Down syndrome.Huntington's disease, Fragile X syndrome, cystic fibrosis, GM gangliolipidosis variant B (old translation of familial proliferative dementia), Goosebump's disease and mirror cell anemia, etc. Genetic testing for children is now also available. Although it is extremely difficult to select genes before conception, it is currently impossible to do so, but after successful conception, it is very easy to know the result of the gene combination of the fertilized egg.As long as you are about three months pregnant, you can extract amniotic fluid or a very small amount of sample cells for DNA analysis or chromosome shape and characteristic analysis.

At present, there are many prenatal tests and routine tests for congenital genetic diseases, which are implemented in major hospitals and clinics, such as thalassemia, sickle-shaped red blood cell disease reduction test, phenylketonuria, Das-Sachs disease and so on.It can be predicted that as the knowledge of disease genes increases, the prenatal screening program will become more complete, and the number of incurable congenital disabilities will decrease. An important tool for gene research and detection is biochip.The use of biochips can be said to be a revolution in biological science.On this issue, please see our interview with Dr. Cheng Jing, director of the Biochip Research Center of Tsinghua University:

The Biochip Research Center is upstairs of the Life Science Research Center of Tsinghua University. This is a relatively closed unit, where a team of scientists from the disciplines of microelectronics, biology, chemistry and materials work intensively. In the director's office, Dr. Cheng Jing introduced the biochip to us.He said: "Simply put, biochips are devices that are small and light, on which many biomolecules can be placed, and biomolecules can be arranged in arrays for analysis. There are various types of biochips In the future, together with the work done in other aspects in the past 20 years, such as pumps, valves, heating and cooling devices, and some analysis devices, we can do some integration, and integrate our biological laboratory, which originally occupied several floors, into a small The device can be used to analyze human and biological samples. The biochip itself does not analyze electrical signals, but we can combine microelectronics technology with biotechnology to analyze the information on a computer."

After listening to his introduction, we curiously asked him if he could let us take a look at the biochip. He took out a delicate small business from the cabinet, and there were different types of biochips the size of a thumb in the box. CPU chips, but some are made of glass, he said: "From the perspective of biological chips, there are two types: active and passive. The passive biochip is just a small experimental platform without circuits and other devices, and cannot do more advanced and complex analysis work. It is a simple device from large to small.Active biochips are capable of complex analysis in addition to sampling. Active biochips and passive biochips are different in materials. The technology is mature, so most of the current biochips use silicon as the substrate of the chip, and only some are made of glass. "

He picked up a chip made of glass and said: "This is an in vitro fertilization biochip made of glass. We saw many circuits engraved on the glass, some with right angles and some with curved angles. Put a lot of sperm on it. Put an egg at a specific position under a microscope, and you can see the characteristics of sperm activity. The sperm will go straight, and will not turn when it moves to a right-angled notch. It will die there, and it can struggle through the bend. In this "marathon "During the long-distance trek, there is also a division of labor in the activities of sperm, some are covering, and some are charging. These are phenomena that we did not know before. After the sampling observation and analysis of this passive biochip, we have a clear understanding of the formation of life. deeper understanding".

Our original impression was that biochips reduced many of the huge biochemical analysis equipment in the past. Dr. Cheng Jing further explained: "Indeed, biochip technology can convert many discontinuous analysis processes in life science research, such as sample preparation, chemical analysis, etc. Reaction and separation detection, transplanted into the chip to make it serial and miniaturized.It turns out that these separate analytical devices occupy many floors.While the analysis speed has been increased by tens of thousands of times, the amount of required samples has also been reduced by thousands of times.One advantage of the biochip is its compatibility. Unlike some biological instruments and analytical instruments, it can only do one kind of analysis at a time, and has no other use.Biochip is a platform without too much discrimination, it is open.In addition, the design of biochips is designed in parallel, which can do many things at the same time, unlike the original instruments that can only complete one test at a time, it can perform multiple tests at a time and obtain thousands of data.From the perspective of quantitative relationship, biochips have entered the microcosmic world from the macrocosm. On micron and nanoscale circuits, the biological analysis process, which was very slow in the original biological experimental device, is accelerated to a process of only a few seconds. "

So how is this process integrated into a chip?Dr. Cheng Jing said: "This issue is more complicated, and it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences." He picked up a so-called "active" biochip and said: "On this biochip, silicon substrates are laid Arrange the circuit, and then package it through the soldering process.” There is also a plastic device outside the chip, he explained, “Because the biochip analyzes liquid biological samples, there is also a fluid channel outside the biochip. , the fluid is detected by the optical system to form a complete circuit. This fluid channel is single-use." "If we observe a biological chip for physiological detection, we can find that there are many points on it, and square arrays can be seen under the microscope, with inlets and outlets. When biological samples pass through these nodes, a lot of information can be obtained." When talking about the second "silicon revolution" of biochips, Dr. Cheng Jing believes that the materials used in biochips are very extensive, just like electronic computers were not based on silicon at the beginning, but because of the development of semiconductor materials, people's understanding of babies Deepened and used a lot, silicon became the main carrier of electronic integrated circuits. Dr. Cheng Jing pointed to this box of biochips and said: "Among these biochips, some are used for research, and some are used for medical testing. Some chips can separate tumor cells, so that the diagnosis of tumors and the diagnosis of diseases Diagnosis, you can get a lot of analysis results at one time." "The chips used for research can be called "pots and pans". In the past, they were generally imported from abroad. Not only are they expensive, but because of the large demand in the United States, they prioritized their own needs. And these things we own completely If it can be done, I think that if the instrumental thing depends on others, it will be controlled by others in some cases. Furthermore, if we rely on other people’s information for research, but the information generated by others depends on our own tools. "On biochips for disease diagnosis, Tsinghua University has established a company in the United States with its own patents. This is an industrialization process. Relying on our own patents, the added value of the products is very large." We know from recent reports that biochips are mainly a revolution in experimental methods. Dr. Cheng Jing showed us the broad application prospects of biochips.The benefits of biochips to human beings are first of all medical. He said: "In the future, we can even have some small 'fool-type' analyzers that can be carried on the body. It can tell you what's wrong with your body, and then send the data to the doctor through the Internet, so that you don't have to go to the hospital for examination. In this way, it is possible that the laboratory department of the hospital will disappear in the future. In a few years, we will be able to achieve remote diagnosis and treatment.If the problem of biocompatibility is solved, biochips can be implanted into the human body in the future, and the health status of people can be understood through the chips, and the current therapeutic medicine can be transformed into future preventive medicine.This is the contribution of biochips to medicine. " Dr. Cheng Jing studied criminal diagnostics in the United States. He said: "Biochips are also widely used in criminal diagnostics. Now criminal samples are taken at the scene and brought back to the laboratory for analysis. This sampling method is prone to errors. It is possible to make mistakes in the process of taking the samples back, and in addition, it may be contaminated on the way back to the laboratory, resulting in errors in the analysis results. The instrument using the biochip can conduct analysis at any time on the spot and get the results as soon as possible.” "Biochips also have many uses in national defense. After the United States launched a war against Iraq in the early 1990s, some physiological symptoms appeared among soldiers, which were not obvious at first, but became stronger and stronger. They called it Gulf Syndrome. The United States responded to this It attaches great importance to the prevention of biological weapons by investing huge sums of money. In a war, it is impossible to move the biological laboratory to the battlefield. If there is such a small thing, it can detect the air, water, and a large number of creatures on the battlefield. It can be concluded that measures should be taken, otherwise it will be too late once entering the contaminated area. In addition, the identification of wreckage on the battlefield also requires biochip technology. During World War II and later wars, there were a large number of The remains of soldiers need to be identified, and they need to be explained to their families. The original method used was blood sample identification. However, the battlefield is bloody and bloody, and it is very easy to make mistakes. These problems can be solved with biochip technology." After China's spaceship "Shenzhou" toured space last year, the Academy of Space Sciences invited Cheng Jing to visit the spaceship, and the small space left a deep impression on him.He said: "Biochip technology is also widely used in space science. Space experiments are affected by the load, and the design of space capsules is very small. It is impossible to carry all the analytical instruments needed for scientific experiments in space. Analysis after return for recovery is costly. If biochip technology is used, analysis and research work can be carried out in space, the cost is low, and the research effect is also very good." Dr. Cheng Jing is most concerned about the drug detection biochip.He said: "Chinese medicine is a treasure handed down from our ancestors. We use it ourselves very effectively, but we just can't enter the international market. The problem lies in our failure to meet foreign testing requirements. For example, the National Testing Bureau in the United States has many requirements. To answer one by one clearly, they also know that Chinese medicine is effective, but Western medicine is an experimental science, and Chinese medicine is a practical science. Our Chinese medicine must meet these requirements if it is to enter the world market. Our country also proposes the modernization of Chinese medicine. But Chinese medicine It is a complex system, and even the process of making pharmaceuticals is very strict. We can now use biochips to get a lot of important data, and we can get thousands of information at a time, so that the concept of quantitative analysis can be established .” "Not only Chinese medicine has this need, but Western medicine also has this need. After synthetic chemistry comes out, people can synthesize countless synthetic compounds, and they must be able to quickly screen them out and recognize those that can be developed, because our country New drugs are also being developed. In addition, many proprietary drugs were "shot" in the past. These drugs were still very good when they were first used clinically. There may be problems. A certain group of people will have a strong reaction to this drug. Before the Human Genome Project was developed, people could not figure out the reason and had to abolish it. With the biochip, we can put this The separation of the group shows that the drug is effective for the vast majority of people and it does not have to be abolished. For example, in the future, each person can have a card that stores his drug information, and he can know which drugs he responds to with one play card. This is difficult Human drug administration, from the early and late stages of drug production, has a huge market and benefits mankind. This is pharmaceutical economics. Biochips will play a huge role in it.” When he was studying in the United States, Dr. Cheng Jing watched a sci-fi movie, in which a doctor held a flashlight-like thing in his hand and irradiated the patient. The patient's body and physiological data were all collected in the computer. Although science fiction has fantasy elements, it still has a certain scientific basis.He believes that this scenario biochip can be realized in the future. Dr. Cheng Jing told us that biochip technology has gone through three periods today. The first idea came about when a professor at Imperial College London in the 1970s was doing a postdoctoral job in Japan when he analyzed a chromatogram. I just want to shrink the molecular analysis equipment in terms of density, which is a simple process from large to small. At the end of the 1980s, the director of the Institute of Biology of the National Academy of Sciences of the former Soviet Union adopted a completely different idea, using a glass plate to divide the analysis objects into a sequence of segments by means of combination.In the 1990s, the concept of combinatorial chemistry emerged. A group of scientists in Silicon Valley in the United States discussed that peptide chains could be synthesized through chip technology, grown segment by segment on the chip, and modified photochemical techniques were used in the production process. The combination is more integrated than what the Russians did on glass.Later, they thought about why they couldn't combine microelectronics technology to integrate various analysis processes, so as to control the analysis process as they wish.The current biochips are all made in a parallel way, with the purpose of application. At the first symposium of the Academy of Engineering, many scientists who studied the genome project talked about gene research and biochips, and specifically proposed the concept of gene chips. We asked about the relationship between biochips and the Human Genome Project. Dr. Cheng Jing said: " It can be said that the demand for genome research has greatly promoted the development of biochip technology. Before the genome project, biochip technology existed, but due to unknown needs, the progress was not fast. In the early 1990s, there was a technical bottleneck. At that time, biochip technology was not known. What will happen in the future. After 1995, the situation began to become clear. At the beginning, the Genome Project had little to do with biochips. But the Human Genome Project is not our ultimate goal. After the Genome Project studies the genetic structure clearly, there is still one more application We must know what the function of the genome is. This is the post-gene era. In this era, effective technical means are needed to analyze these genes. At this time, the advantages of biochips are highlighted. It can be said that biochips are big In addition, human genome research is only one aspect. There are too many organisms in the world. In addition to the human genome project, there is also the rice genome, which is a focus of genetic research in China. The genome research of other organisms can be said Endless. The production and use of biochips has made research tools advance by leaps and bounds. If genome research is a treasure, biochips are like powerful mining machines, and in this field, whoever discovers new genes first will have them. Intellectual property rights, you can get huge profits.” As for the research topics brought to basic science after the production of biochips, Dr. Cheng Jing said: "After the biochips have grown from large to small, many laws have changed, and the original macro theory is no longer applicable at the micro level. Chips need to be manufactured before they can be used. In the future, there will be a lot of work to be done in basic research. I went to Caltech last year and learned that the U.S. government has invested billions of dollars for this, and plans to achieve some regular results within 20 years. " When Dr. Cheng Jing returned from the United States in 1997, it was the heyday of biochip research. "Thinking about it now, I may have come back a little earlier. As a postdoctoral fellow in the United States, three patents must be issued every year, but you only have the right to invent this patent. I think patented inventions are not always available. One invention is one less. , instead of doing it for others, it’s better to do it yourself when you come back. They are all from China! Moreover, the awareness of patent protection in the United States is very strong, and some people only have an idea. Those who are not approved will be protected. The patent system in our country is very strict, similar to that in Europe.When I was in the United States, I had the idea of ​​returning to China to do work, and I also contacted a group of like-minded people. In our center, many of them are people who quit their jobs in the United States and came back to work.In the beginning, various conditions were not perfect, and the level may drop a little, but after a period of time, the level will rise again, because the level and quality of this group of people are there. " How is the development of biochip technology in the world now?Dr. Cheng Jing said: "The development pattern of biochips in the world is not very clear now. Many investment companies invest like beans, because they don't know who is in the hands of the truth. As for China, there are now more than 20 researches. Like Fudan University, etc., there are about 4.5 companies engaged in biochips.” "Our research center at Tsinghua University did not set its goal at home at the beginning. We felt that it was meaningless to compete at home. We should compete internationally. We recently established a company in the United States, using our patented technology from Tsinghua University. The prospect is very good. .” Shortly after Dr. Cheng Jing returned from the United States, the State Science and Technology Commission held a meeting in Xiangshan. This meeting was different from previous scientific planning meetings. The Science and Technology Office of the Chinese Embassy in the United States asked the State Science and Technology Commission to pay attention to the research of biochip technology The preparation time is very short.Dr. Cheng Jing said that at that conference, it was the first time for many old scientists to hear young people like them talk about biochips.The National Science and Technology Commission also set up a special research project. "When Premier Zhu listened to the lecture this time, Minister Zhu Lilan said that the Science and Technology Commission had paid attention to biochip technology very early. Premier Zhu joked that the attention was paid attention, but the movement was not big enough." Dr. Cheng Jing said that the country is currently preparing to establish a national-level biochip technology. Biochip Research Center. What kind of policy should the country adopt for the research and development of biochips? Dr. Cheng Jing said that the first is talent. The United States has invested more than 3 billion US dollars in biochips.Taiwan is spending money to buy technology.We should do it differently, because with talent comes technology and patents, and talent is open to the world. Technology is very important in this process now, because technology is the basic part of a country's technological capabilities. If the cost of technology is too high, it is not worth promoting and cannot realize industrialization.This is one reason why our company is internationally oriented. Two-gene drug therapy The drugs and vaccines manufactured by gene technology have benefited 270 million people all over the world.This is the estimate of a survey report recently published by the Biotechnology Industry Organization of the United States.Although it is less than 20 years since the first medical biotechnology product appeared, the results have been astonishing. The progress made by this young industry in biotechnology shows that it has great potential for developing drugs and treatments for diseases such as heart disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and cancer.Nearly 100 biotechnology drugs and vaccines have been put on the market so far, and more than 350 are in the final stage of clinical trials. Now, many conventional drugs have been replaced by gene splicing drugs.Genetically engineered human insulin has completely replaced natural insulin from cows and pigs in treating the 3.4 million diabetics in the United States.Every year, 200,000 kidney dialysis patients use the erythropoietin produced by AInpo.This gene splicing product can stimulate the growth of red blood cells and reduce the risk of blood transfusion. Tissue plasminogen activator (dZx) produced by Genetech can dissolve blood clots. p-interferon produced by AVOnex and Betasern has been used to treat multiple sclerosis.Pulmonary proenzyme (DNase) has also been used to treat pulmonary congestion in cystic fibrosis patients. Researchers in the field of genetically engineered drugs say the genetically engineered drugs described above are just the beginning of the many promises that lie ahead of us.Scientists in some genetic work labs are using new methods to alter the genetic traits of certain insects that carry a deadly human pathogen, turning them into harmless vectors.Researchers at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases genetically engineered mosquitoes to make them incapable of transmitting serious diseases. Scientists claim their ongoing research in animal models could offer new hope for a cure for diseases long thought to be incurable. In May 1997, several doctors of Johns Hopkins University, Li Shijin (Se-JinLee), Lawler (AnnM.lawer) and McPhelan (AlexandreMW—) reported that they discovered a regulatory mouse Genes for muscle growth.The company at MetaMmphiX hopes the research will offer new hope for treating certain muscle diseases plus muscular dystrophy, as well as muscle wasting caused by AIDS and cancer. Even more astonishing, in May 1997, a Japanese research team reported that they had successfully transplanted the entire human chromosome into the genetic code of mice.This breakthrough means that in the future, cloning and genetic engineering can be used to produce animals in large quantities, and use these animals to make an unlimited number of pharmaceutical products such as human antibodies.in high concentrations.These antibodies may shrink tumors and kill viruses and bacteria. There are also people who think that they can use the skill of manipulating life to transform organisms such as bacteria and yeast into animal and plant cells, add the genetic codes that people expect, and then cultivate a large number of these modified living cells to make them grow continuously. produce the substances we need.The products manufactured in this way will follow the deconstruction and mastery of the human "genome", and more and more products will come out. Bacterial cells of lower organisms, after all, are different from human cells. Drugs produced by "gene-working bacteria" still need to go through complicated reprocessing procedures to remove harmful impurities, including possible toxins, viruses or bacteria, and molecules. Only by restructuring the structure, etc., can it become a commodity.Otherwise, if genetically engineered products such as coconuts inadvertently contain lethal or carcinogenic ingredients and are used in preparations for mandatory vaccination, the consequences will be disastrous. Therefore, some people consider directly transforming animal somatic cells and cultivating them in large quantities. This kind of animal cells directly used as "living pharmaceutical factories" has its very attractive advantages, such as safety, protein structure and function can be guaranteed, The post-processing procedure is relatively easy to control, but the high cost and the difficulty in obtaining the source of culture substrate materials (such as plasma) are also big problems. In addition, animal bodies can also be directly used as pharmaceutical factories. For example, genes for specific compounds needed by humans can be injected into mammary gland cells of cows or sheep, such as hormones, blood coagulation factors, cytokines, etc., so that the animal body can secrete When we drink milk, we can also produce what we want at the same time, so as long as we drink that cup of milk, we can absorb the healing medicine by the way. Three-organ replication and regeneration Thanks to genes, it is possible to make human tissues and organs. It is beneficial to human beings to use their own cells to replicate a brand new organ to transplant and replace an organ that is on the verge of damage due to disease or accident. According to scientists at the University of Bath in the United Kingdom, scientists have developed a genetic modification of frog embryos. Technology, leaving only the specific parts that are needed, plus the heart and blood circulation system, create a headless frog.If this technology continues to develop, it is not difficult to imagine that one day, scientists can use the placenta in the artificial womb to grow human organs such as hearts, kidneys, and livers.Since the copied organ genome and cell ownership are completely identical, there should be no problem of white blood cell rejection during transplantation.In fact, organ replication can be thought of as a relatively positive "selective replication" and the premise is that we must know how cells manage the differentiation program, so that we can correctly turn on the gene switch and turn off the parts that do not need to act, so that the cells can act according to our needs. The pathways set out to produce the organs we need. The use of organ cloning technology has relieved many people from suffering.A 19-year-old boy was admitted to the University of California Hospital in San Diego because of burns on more than 60% of his body surface. Doctors in the burn department used the skin cultivated and grown in the laboratory by AdvancedTssuAiences to cover the patient's burn area. After 47 days of treatment, the patient recovered discharge. Researchers want to think beyond organ transplants and into the era of organ fabrication, and are already working on making heart valves, breasts, ears, and cartilage.nose and other parts of the body.Dr. Lange (Rdritbog.) and Dr. Vacanti (JMphp.Vndi), the two scientists who contributed the most to this new field, said: "Our idea is not to simply transplant but to make organs." According to Rifkin, They first worked together in 1984, when Vacanti was a surgeon at Harvard Medical School and Langer was a chemical engineer at MIT.The theory of the technology is relatively simple, and the process is explained by Vacanti and Lange as follows: "Researchers use computer-aided design and manufacturing methods to place plastic of a certain shape into a precision framework bed that simulates the structure of a tissue or organ. The simulation The scaffolding is treated with chemicals to help the cells move and proliferate, and then "seeds" the cells.As the cells divide and assemble, the plastic degrades, leaving only the kinetochores.This new permanent tissue is ready for implantation in the patient. " Oreqenesis, a Boston-based company, boasts that it can "create 16,000 square meters of skin" by removing just a few cells from the foreskin.Experiments by other companies like OrganogenS have also demonstrated that functional organs can be generated from several cell cultures within a polymer framework.According to Langer and Vacanti: "The cells are very good at regenerating the tissue itself, and can communicate with each other in three-dimensional culture using the same extracellular signals that guide the development of organs in utero." David Moohey, a chemical engineer at the University of Michigan in the United States, and Dr. James Martin of the Carolina Medical Center are engaged in research on growing women's breasts in the laboratory.They hope to soon be able to grow breast cells into three-dimensional breast scaffolds, which can then be implanted in women's breasts.These fabricated cells will grow in the framework until they grow into a new living breast. Researchers across the United States are also conducting various experiments in using human cells to make organs such as human lungs, hearts, livers and pancreas.At Boston Children's Hospital, Dr. Anthony Atala, chair of the tissue engineering department at Harvard Medical School, grows human necks in glass culture flasks.His research team obtained bladder cells from a 10-year-old male patient, implanted them in a three-dimensional plastic framework, and let these cells grow in the experimental vessel according to the set framework.Otauro's research has been approved for clinical trials, and then the laboratory-grown bladder was transplanted into the young patient, creating the first human transplantation of tissue-engineered organs.The framework on which the cells grow will eventually be destroyed by enzymes in the patient's body, leaving only a functioning human bladder.In addition, Autaug's research team is also working on cultivating human kidneys in the laboratory.Researchers in the field predict that by 2020, 95 percent of human body parts will be replaced with lab-grown organs. In the 21st century, genetically engineered living tissue structures will replace bone and joint prosthetics made of plastic and metal, Lange and Vacanti say. "These living implants," the researchers claim, "will blend seamlessly with surrounding tissue, eliminating the many hassles of dyeing and wearing prosthetics." Researchers have already used polymer structures in the lab to create noses and ears, and have transplanted them into animals.Scientists predict that more complex human body parts such as hands, arms, etc., can also be grown in polymer frameworks according to the different needs of patients.The final hurdle "is the inability of the neural tissue to regenerate."So far no one has been able to grow human nerve cells.However, most scientists in the field are confident that this hurdle will be overcome in the near future. "Organ regeneration" is different from "organ duplication". Organ duplication is done outside the body, and then transplanted back after it is made. Complicated surgical operations are required, and the cost and risk are relatively high. "Organ regeneration" occurs within the body, just like some lower animals such as spiders can regenerate after losing limbs or tails.However, higher animals do not have this ability. Most of the cells in the human body can only perform a specific function due to their high degree of differentiation, so they no longer have the ability to divide and proliferate.Although these different cells all contain the same set of genomes, they are all switched on except for the specific functions they must perform. If a person loses limbs or eyes due to an accident, "regeneration" will be able to make up for this regret.If we can fully understand the process of cell differentiation and have a way to control it, if an eyeball is lost, can the cells around the eye start to differentiate and grow, and regain a new eyeball that is exactly the same as the original and fully functional? This is where future life scientists can focus. The four-gene improvement fund therapy will eventually be used for improvement. According to scientists, all human diseases are genetic diseases in a sense, and the possibility of "being sick" has been drawn on the genetic blueprint before the child is born. Therefore, parents can, before the child is born, It is required to carry out risk prediction through genetic analysis, so it is not difficult to give birth to a healthy and intelligent baby.Through genetic technology, each individual can be healthy and intelligent, which is a kind of genetic improvement. Many doctors now believe that obesity is a disease and a major health threat.To be fashionable, the first element is to be slim.Overweight is mostly caused by inactivity and overeating. 1/3 of Americans are overweight.The number of obese people in China is also increasing day by day. If the factors of fast metabolism can be arranged in the genes, it will be much easier to keep slim. This is actually a genetic modification as well.关于防止肥胖，科学家的研究已经有了重要的发现。 美国科学家发现，改变储存脂肪的基因可以防止肥胖。美国新泽西州医学和牙科研究大学的科学家们在老鼠身上进行了6个月的试验，发现一种遗传基因能够生产储存脂肪的新细胞。对这种基因进行干预使之变异后，老鼠即使吃高脂食物也不会增加体重。 有的科学家曾担心，储存脂肪的细胞一旦政变，脂肪可能会聚集在肝上。但是，科学家们在对老鼠进行试验时没有发现这种副作用，并确信对人的试验可以取得同样效果。科学家们最近将开始对人进行试验，如果能用药物改变造成肥胖的基因，就可以彻底解决肥胖问题。 基因改良从技术上来讲似乎已不是什么大问题了，但人们对基因改良的认识却还不尽一致。 从生物学的角度看，基因没有好坏之分，没有高低贵贱之别。一个人长得如何，身体的状况如何，都是大自然千百万年演进的结果，也没有好坏之分，没有高低贵贱之别，在这一点上我们坚决反对种族歧视、基因歧视。主张尊重、平等和宽容。 . 但是，整个人类不对人体的差别做价值判断，却无法阻止个体对之作价值判断。无法无视个体在其价判断基础上的生命追求，包括对外貌、智力、心理的选择与希图。特别是现在这样一种价值多元化与商业利益无所不在的时代。 对于这一点伦理学家和生物学家的想法是一致的。伦理学家帕伦斯说：“若以为允许用在治疗上，不许用在外表改良上，那就大错特错。” 生物学家也认为：“基因改良一定会发生。国会不会通过法律，不准体治疗秀头。” 对这个问题有些学者表现得过于敏感和过于绝对化。有的社会伦理学家担心，基因治疗会减少人类文化的多样性？比如，梵离有非常严重的精神病，假设我们在梵局还未出生时就发现他有精神病的基因，而将他流产，就不会有梵高了；如果梵离出生后作了基因治疗，那么，基因治疗后的梵高也许会考大学、读研究生，但他还是那个取得了非凡的绘画成就的梵高吗？ 是的，我承认残疾人和精神病人也有很高的价值，我们应当尊重他们，理解他们，并对他们对人类的贡献表示敬意。不能用优劣对他们的生存状态进行价值判定。但是，我们同样应当理解这些疾病给他们带来的痛苦，无论是从精神上还是在肉体上，我想，这些也是他们不愿如此的。我喜欢凡高的绘画，欣赏他的人格、情操，但我绝不愿意为了欣赏到这些画而赞同医生有能力从基因水平上治疗、避免他的精神病而放弃这种努力。 人类文化的多样性并不能以我们自觉地使一部分人的肉体与精神痛苦为代价，如果这样的话是否有些过于残忍了呢？我们固然不能说有残疾是劣生，但我们不妨们心自问，我们哪个人愿意身体有残疾呢？由于我们人类的无能为力，有的人身体有了残疾，这是一件不幸的事。做为残疾者本人要接受这个事实，不消沉，不悲观，努力抗争，全社会的人应当鼓励他们，尊重他们，平等地对待他们。但当由于科技的发展，人类有条件避免残疾的发生的时候，我们为什么不能消灭残疾，让每个人都健康自如地象正常人一样的生活观？ 我想，拥有健康的身体是每个人的最基本的愿望，人类的一切发展都应当落脚在个体的健康发展上，这是我们思考问题的一个出发点。 遗传学从艺术上学到两个主要观念，一是自然并不完美，二是人有能力有义务导自然于完美，导人类于完美。实际上绝对的完美是不存在的，而且完美的标准也是不统一的。how to solve this problem?我想，一方面是科学的引导；一方面将这种判断、选择的权力交给每一个个体，由个体自身去依据自己的认识理解去选择。实际上现在人们已经在这样做了，只不过是通过外科手术。象隆鼻、割双眼皮、丰唇、隆乳、拉皮、丰额，特别是减肥。当每个人都能自我感觉到外表优美、健壮从而带来内心的愉悦和自信时，我们的人类是不是会变得更和谐更美好呢？ 总之，对基因改良的意义、价值，不要因噎废食，而是要科学地引导，去弊取利。 英国政府负责协调基因研究工作的科学家说，随着人类在基因密码研究方面的进展，死亡也受到科学的挑战。这位科学家预言，人类寿命很可能在不久的将来被大大延长，而且具有达到1200岁的潜力。国家人类基因组北方中心负责人顾军博士说，可以说，人体的疾病都与基因有关。比如一些人到中年会秃顶，年老舍得糖尿病，这都与基因有关。 记录着人体奥秘的基因密码公布后，人就变成了一个“透明”体，医学家可以预测出何时会得疾病，得什么病，由哪些基因致病，从而用基因诊治，人的寿命由此会大为延长。 人类基因组博士张猛说，不少科学家认为人的寿命与细胞的周期分裂有关，而基因研究可以计算出细胞的寿命，从而为人体“算命”提供科学依据。 一项最新发表在美国《科学》杂志上的研究发现：有60种基因与人的衰老有关。 看来，人类千百年来探求长寿的努力都没有抓住问题的根本，都没有从基因的层面上探求长寿之道。那么基因与人的寿命到底是一种什么关系，为什么说抓住了基因就算掌握了长寿的秘诀，圆了人类几千年的梦想，人类又是如何探索基因与寿命的关系的呢？ 我们来看着哈默和柯鲁蓝的介绍。 一般人认为，如果父母亲都长寿，那么子女也较可能长寿。许多科学实验证实，长寿可能和遗传有关。1934年，在约翰霍普金斯医学院一项破天荒的研究中，两位姓波尔（Peax ＆R．W．Pear）的科学家，访查了一群九十岁以上的人，证明他们的祖先多半很长寿。四十年之后，该校新一代的科学家继续追逐这群人的子女，发现他们也都很长寿。 究竟遗传与长寿有什么样的关系？最好的例证来自一个双胞胎实验。针对1870至1900年出生的2872名丹麦双胞胎所作的调查发现，同卵双胞胎的死亡年龄比异卵双胞胎接近，显示出基因的影响。不过影响并不很强：长寿的遗传性在男性约为26％，女性约为23％，而决定人能活多久的变数，大部分是在于看来毫不相关的个人因素而非家族因素。就是这还算普遍的长寿遗传性，也可能分布在很多不同的基因上。有庞大的数字不禁令人却步，尤其第一手资料又那么少（自有遗传学以来才只有几个世代而已）。 但有些人依然不畏困难，想要找出衰老的基因。1976年，罗斯（MIChaeR·ROSe）在英国瑟克斯大学作遗传研究生的时候，开始在牛乳瓶中培养他的“家族”。他在瓶中装满营养物质，放了两百双受精的雌果蝇进去。五周后，果蝇已到达生育期的尽头，罗斯收集了依然健康且有生殖力的果蝇的卵，养育新的一代。再过五周，他又收集了最长寿果蝇的卵，不断重复这样的过程，每一次都选择最长寿果蝇的子孙。果然如他所预期的，新一代的果蝇都活得比上一代的稍微长久。 如今罗斯已经培育出百万双果蝇，而且这些果蝇还在继续繁殖，经过长寿的筛选。 罗斯现在有加州大学厄文分校五十名研究助理协助他作这个研究，目前他所培育的果蝇寿命已经是祖先的两倍，而且还在持续增加。如果他们是人类，寿命就已经达140岁了。 罗斯称这些寿命长达120天的果蝇为“马撒拉果蝇”（Methuselah）。马撒拉是圣经中一位寿星的名字，他活了969岁。 罗斯的实验说明了两个重点。第一，基因在衰老的过程中举足轻重，长寿的果蝇并不是因为医药进步、保健制度或是汽车安全带而延长寿命的，他们和其他果蝇的不同只在于基因，而且罗斯是以培养而非干预的方式“自然”生成的；第二，衰老基因的数量必然非常庞大，如果只是少数几个基因，那么罗斯的实验老早就可以结束了，因为只需几个世代就可以选择出最优良的基因。罗斯依然在培育长寿的果蝇，意味着依然还有许多尚未找出的衰老基因库，而要找出这些基因，必须先了解衰老基因如何运作。 艾默瑞大学医学院的华勒斯博士（Dr·haWallace）曾展示细胞老化的幻灯片。24岁时的细胞在幻灯片上不但紧绷，而且展现了完好的色带。33岁时，色带依然清楚，但边线已经开始模糊了。随着年岁增加，色带开始松坠退化，在最后一张94岁的幻灯片中，可以看到原先的色带已经完全消失，只剩下一片朦胧。这些幻灯片展现了年岁如何侵蚀了包含在拉线作的DNA。我们以16569个碱基的粒线体基因组展开生命，但随着我们老化，细胞分裂，总有错误、省略和删除。而由于失去的DNA不能取代，因此人到了观岁，就几乎没有任何基因组能保持原封不动了。 众所周知，复印过多遍的文件很难阅读，人类的衰老也有着相同的道理，细胞在经过多次复制之后便很难准确地识别它的基因，这也导致了和年龄有关的疾病的发生，如： 乳腺癌、骨质疏松症、老年痴呆症等。 就象被弄污的复印件，劣质的基因在复制过程中会出现错误，也就是说，衰老的细胞丧失了精确复制自身的能力，就如同癌细胞不能停止繁殖一样。衰老曾被认为是由于细胞停止分裂所造成，新的研究发现衰老是由于细胞的再造过程中失去质量控制所致。 一项受试者包括一个7岁、一个9岁、两个37岁、三个90岁以上人，以及两个分别为8岁和9岁的患有早衰疾病的孩子的研究，通过DNA显微排列技术，科学家发现在较老的人体细胞中有1％的基因已经发生了改变。而一种罕见的基因失调导致早衰孩子的过早衰老。如果接下来的研究可以确认这一组基因确实影响人的衰老，也许阻止这种基因作用的药物将被研究出来，而人类将不会对衰老有过多的担心。 失去DNA是另一种更普遍的退化过程——氧化——的迹象。每一个人体细胞每天都使用约一兆分子的氧气，但并非所有的氧气都是好的。含有自由基这种未配对电子的氧气，是人体内最活泼也最具破坏性的毒素。由于自由基多带一个负电，因此会胡乱把自己依附在多种不同的分子上，它们攻击DNA、蛋白质和脂质，造成皮肤上的老人斑，也破坏细胞的修复和再生。 氧气和金属结合时，称作生锈，而当由氧气生成的自由基攻击人体细胞时，就称作老化。我们赖以维生的呼吸，其实也使我们的身体生锈，因此等于屠杀自己。我们年轻健康的时候，细胞能够修复和取代自由基所造成的破坏，但当氧气攻击修复和取代的机制时，我们的细胞新陈代谢和造成突变的DNA（包括导致癌症者）就容易受损。 氧化的老化理论可以预言：促进自由基产生和破坏的基因，会加速老化，而阻止自由基或增进细胞保护自己能力的基因，就能延长寿命。学者已经在一种非常不可能的生物身上测试这种理论：一种小虫。 这种以细菌为食的圆虫只有一毫米长，是雌雄同体，亦即可以自行授精，只活九天。 它的基因至少有四成和人类相同，而它短暂的生命也可以极度压缩的形式，反映出人类的寿命。这种虫在衰老的过程中，最先是丧失生殖力，接着动作逐渐延缓，保证自己不受氧化伤害的能力也衰退，DNA中累积了错误和改变，尤其是在拉线体DNA上，接着死亡到来。如果细心培育，可以产生一群超级小虫，能够有五倍于一般的寿命，相当于人类活到350年左右。这是借着结合数种和衰老有关的不同基因而达到的。 第一个延长寿命的突变，在名为“年龄一”（ge－1）的基因中发现。这个基因的突变异种寿命是正常圆虫的两倍，而且在年轻时期和其他国立一样健康活泼，繁殖力强。 这种变种老化时，不论丧失行动能力的速度或是粗线体DNA突变的累积，都比其他的虫慢得多。 科学家想要了解，这些虫得以长寿是否因“年龄一”基因们免受自由基之害，因此让这些虫暴露在高密度的氧气或是制造自由基的化学物质中。变种虫的确在几方面表现得比一般虫子更强健，他们更能抵抗自由基、热度及紫外线（制造自由基）。变种的细胞促进两种酵素的最：过氧化氨酶和过氧化物歧化酶（sUperokidedisrnutase，即S3D），而这两种酵素能够把有毒的自由基转为较温和的分子。因此，拥有“年龄一” 基因的虫，的确更能抗氧化。 另一种变异也减缓了这种虫的生理时钟。拥有这种称作“时钟”基因的虫，发育较一般的虫慢，生活的步调也较慢。他们的一切都放慢速度：胚胎的发育延迟了，细胞的分化得花更长的时间，动作和游泳步调侵吞吞，甚至排便也放慢了速度，死亡亦然。他们的寿命增加了一半以上，仿佛这些虫生活在时间减缓的另一个世界。对于这种延长的寿命，一种可能的解释是基因减少了自由基的累积，或是增加了分解毒素的酷素累积。 甚至正常的虫对生命的步调，都比人类有更高的控制力。在遣送旱灾或饥荒时，虫子可以整优进入冬眠期，等情况改善再恢复正常生活。某些基因突变促进了这种冬眠的状态，使寿功鹏，在冬眠期，虫子不吃不动（也不会累积由自由基而来的损害），但依然存活。学者让冬眠期长和生理时钟慢的虫杂交，培育出寿命长达一般央五倍的虫子，破了纪录。 在虫子中所发现的延长寿命基因很重要，因为它们和氧化压力相关，这是和造成人类衰老相同的机制。 科学家们不光研究虫子，还研究老鼠。欧洲肿瘤研究所的科学家说，通过实验表明，只要去除一种控制细胞修复功能的基因，就可以使普通老鼠的寿命延长。 进行该项研究的负责人佩利奇说，科学家早已发现，在衰老过程中，细胞会因氧化反应而受损。在过去的实验中，研究人员发现了一种控制po6SHC蛋白的基因，它就如同一个电源开关一样，当它接通时，P66SHC蛋白就可以及时修复受损细胞，反之，则受损细胞死亡。他解释说，去除这种基因，P66SHC蛋白便可经常处于“接通状态”，使因氧化而受损的细胞迅速获得修复。他说，他和他的研究人员培育出的去除这种基因的老鼠，其平均寿命较一般老鼠高出另％。 通过以上的介绍，我们知道人类在探索长寿的道路上已经迈出了决定性的一步，不同的试验、研究，已经从多个角度对寿命与基因的关系做了有很高价值的发现。人类寿命的大幅度延长已经不是遥不可及的事了，个体的长生千岁不再是梦想。 但是，人活得越长就一定越好吗？人类的新陈代谢是自然的规律，也是历史的规律。 人不光是生物学意义上的个体，还是人类社会的一员，还要从全人类种族社会的角度看问题。这一点科学家已有所体悟。基因学家杨焕明说：要不了多少年，人便可以根据“基因图”调整自己的生活方式，使自己处于最佳的生命环境中，这样活150岁不成问题。现在，科学家已经可以拨动人体的生物钟，如果“生物钟”问题攻克了，人可以活到500岁。当然，科学的发展要有利于人类的进步，人类过于追求长寿，对人类本身没有好处。所以，科学家还要负起人类的整体责任，有的事不可以做。 基因工程技术在农业上已经产生或即将产生根本性的影响。 基因技术可以在以下方面发挥作用： 1.改善农作物对抗恶劣环境的能力·抗恶劣环境——如抗霜害、耐旱、耐热、耐碱的新品种。 ·抗病害——如抗菌、抗虫、抗杀草剂的基因工程新品种。 2.提升农作物的品质与产量·耐储运及后熟控制——如若茄、香蕉等浆果类产品之品质提升及成熟度控制。 ·含“补药”的农产品——米饭也可当“药”吃，萝卜可以当“人参”卖等，未来这些都不再只是梦想。 据《日经产业新闻》报道，日本农业生物资源研究所成功地将玉米的光合酶的基因植入水稻细胞中，从而为培育生长快、产量高的“超级精”提供了可能。 玉米中有三种与光合作用有关的酶，即“PEPC”。“PPDK”和“NADpoME”，光合作用要比水稻强，能够在瘠薄的土地上生长。该研究所用转基因技术把玉米的这三种酶的基因分别植入水稻细胞中去，培育出了三种转基因水稻新品种。室内栽培的结果表明，这些新稻种的光合作用大大高于一般水稻。 从理论上说，玉米的光合酶能够提高玉米对二氧化碳的利用率，增加它的淀粉含量，而且还能够使其有效地利用土壤中的水分和氮肥，提高产量。 该所计划把玉米的上述三种光合酶的基因同时植入水稻中，以培育光合作用更强、生长快和产量高的“超级稻”。 美国科学家最近还分离出一种能够加速植物生长的基因，这一成果对于提高作物产量和作物育种具有重要意义。 据美国《科学》杂志报道，这种名为FT的新基因是由美国加利福尼亚州萨克尔研究所的生物学教授德勒夫·威格尔等人识别并分离出来的。威格尔研究小组利用遗传工程方法对一种名叫拟南芬的植物进行改造，插入了这种新的基因，结果培育出了含有ry基因的拟南芥种子。 科学家发现，FT基因含有的一种蛋白与另一种拟南芥蛋白TFLI极其相似，而TFLI基因对于植物开花过程起阻碍作用。如果加强ry基因的表达就能使植物提早开花，反过来如果加强TFLI基因的功能就会推迟植物的开花时间。威格尔说，他们已经把ry基因插入烟草植物里，提早了烟草的开花期。 威格尔研究小组还发现，与早先发现的导致植物提早开花的LEAF基因相比，基因FT不仅仅可以提早植物的开花期，还可以加速植物枝叶的生长和发育。该小组计划利用这种基因来培育转基因水稻。 除了提高农作物的性能，加快生产速度，利用基因技术还可以消灭害虫。 英国科学家用转基因技术培育出一种果蝇，其雌性后代因具有基因缺陷将无法生存。 这种方法可望用于消灭果蝇和其它侵害农作物或传染疾病的害虫。 美国《科学》杂志发表报告称，英国牛津大学和曼彻斯特大学的科学家在果蝇体内设置了一个“基因开关”。它对雄性果蝇没有影响，但会在雌性果蝇体内起作用。具有这种基因的雌性果蝇，必须从食物中摄取足量的四环素，否则就会无法消化吸收食物营养，最终导致免疫机能失调而死亡。 科学家说，如果将这种转基因雄性果蝇大量投放到自然界中，它们与野生雌性果蝇交配后，产生的雌性后代将遗传这种致命基因，难以存活。经过一定时间，野生果蝇的数量就会显着减少。科学家正在研究用这种方法消灭地中海果蝇和传染黄热病的伊政。 由于一般只有雌性害虫会对农作物和人畜产生较大危害，向自然环境中投放大量雄性转基因害虫，并不会加重虫害。 1996年，美国佛罗里达州释放出第一只遗传工程昆虫——捕食螨。佛罗里达大学的研究人员希望这种螨能捕食损害费和其他作物的螨类。加利福尼亚大学的科学家们，则把一个致死基因导入红棉铃虫，一种引起棉田每年损失上百万美元的鳞翅目毛虫。这种致死基因在棉铃虫的子代开始激活，在其损害棉花、交配和繁殖之前的早幼棉铃虫阶段就被杀死。这个项目的研究人员托马斯·米勒（ThomasMiller）和琅洛坎（JohnP。 lmpin）希望把这种遗传Xi程棉铃臾幼虫大量培育为成虫，然后把它们释放到环境中与野生型棉铃虫蛾交配，其后代都将因为携带致死基因而大批死亡。这是一种新的虫害控制方法。 基因技术在农业方面潜力巨大。据介绍，在农业方面，生物工程产品趋于部分取代由石油化工方法制造的农用化学物。科学家们正忙于设计研制新粮食品种。这些新品种可以直接从空气中吸取氮，而不是像现在的庄稼这样需要施用化肥。还有一些正在进行的实验，探索把某一种系的理想遗传性状转入另一种系，以提高植物的营养价值、产量和质量。科学家们正在用有除草剂抗性、帮助抵御病毒和虫害，以及适合干旱或盐碱环境的基因进行试验，所有这些都是为了提高和加速农产品进入市场的流程。 1996年，第一批进行基因剪接的、以商业为目的的粮食作物开始种植。在美国亚拉巴马州棉花池中，有3／4以上是遗传工程的抗虫害品种。1997年，美国的遗传大豆的种植面积超过300万公顷，遗传工程玉米的种植面积也超过了140万公顷。化学和农业公司希望在今后5年时间里，在绝大多数农田里种上经过基因剪接的农作物。 有几家生物技术公司正在组织培养这一新的研究领域里探索，目标是到21世纪时能把更多的农业生产转移到室内。20世纪既年代后期，位于美国加利福尼亚州的一家生物技术公司L吸困划办cs（现已倒闭）宣布，他们在实验室里用植物细胞培养方法，成功生产出了香子兰。香子兰是美国最受欢迎的一种香料，在美国销售的冰淇淋中有1石是香草冰淇淋。但是，香子兰生产成本昂贵，它必须人工授粉，并要求在采集和加工的过程中格外小心。现在，科研人员应用基因剪接技术，通过分离基因和解译产生香草昧的代谢途径，使香子兰可以在细菌培养精内生长，在实验室里大量生产香于兰，而不再需要豆荚、苗木和土壤，也不需要农民来栽培和收获。 研究人员用组织培养方法在实验室里成功生产出了相橘和柠檬的囊泡。一些工业分析家相信，在不久的将来，橘汁将可以直接在大培养缸里“生长”，不需要再去种植橘树。美国农业部的科学家，已经把松散的棉花细胞浸在含营养液的培养缸里让其生长。 因为这种是无菌条件下生长的，没有微生物污染，故可以直接用来制作无菌棉纱。 已故的罗戈夫（MdrtinH·R明献和罗林斯（StaphenL·Rawins）是前美国农业部的生物学家和科研管理者，他们预见将来会以农田和工厂相结合的方式来进行农业生产。 农田里种植终年不断的生物量（b——）农作物，收获后用酶把它们转化成为糖溶液，然后把这些糖溶液用管道输送到城市的生产工厂。它们将被用作营养来源，以便通过组织培养大量生产浆（pulp）。这类浆可以根据需要重组或制作成为不同的结构和形状，以模拟传统“土地生长”形式的农作物。按照罗林斯的说法，这是一种新型的农作物生产工厂，将进行高度自动化生产，只需要很少的工人。 英国一家证券公司的罗伯特·弗莱明认为，基因工程将会使种子成为今后有利可图、有发展前途的生意。由于看到了这一转移的来临，大型的化学公司，如英格兰的皇家化学实业公司，英荷壳牌集团，美国的蒙桑托公司，瑞士的桑多兹公司，法国的罗纳一普朗公司，已经在过去的十年中花费了100亿美国购买种子公司。 利用基因转移可以提高小麦产量。据赵学漱先生介绍，我国着名育种家李振声用禾本科草和小麦杂交，使有益基因转移。经筛选后，培育出新的小麦品种，具有高产且抗病的特点。此小麦品种已在我国西北地区推广，效果很好，每年产量得到很大