Chapter 27 Chapter XXIV Science and Magic

The 1939 New York World's Fair was titled "The World of Tomorrow," and the exhibit stunned me, a small audience from the most closed city of Brooklyn.From this theme alone, it is telling us that we have a future world, even the most casual glimpse is enough to prove that it will be better than the world in 1939.Although I have not noticed those minor anomalies, many people are still longing for the fear and misgiving of war to be allayed on the eve of the most brutal and unfortunate war in the history of mankind.I know at least I will grow up in the world to come.The bright and glorious "future" displayed by the expo is yearning and full of hope.And what is called science is clearly the means to a better future.

But if the exposition's activities were a little different, it might have taught me a lot more.Behind the glorious scene is a brutal struggle.Stunning the show was the fair's president and chief speaker, Grover Whalen, a former corporate director turned New York City Police Commissioner during a reign of unprecedented police brutality and public relations reformer.It was he who wanted the Exposition Building to be used mainly for commercial, industrial, and especially consumer exhibitions, and it was he who made Stalin and Mussolini adamant that extravagant state-level luxury buildings should be built (later he also complained that he often had to give the fascist salute).According to one designer, the layers of the exhibition are only adapted to the intelligence of a 12-year-old.

However, as American University historian Peter Kuznik describes, a group of prominent scientists, including Harold Urie and Albert Einstein, believed that bringing science to the public was for the sake of The development of science itself, not just to sell a little scientific finished product.The focus of disseminating science lies in the scientific way of thinking, not just the introduction of scientific results.They firmly believe that the general public's understanding of science is an effective means of resisting superstition and preventing stubborn and narrow-minded ways of thinking.As science popularization expert Watson Davis said: "The road to science is the road to democracy." Another scientist even believes that the public's understanding of scientific methods will play a role in "ultimately defeating ignorance."This is an important but difficult goal to achieve.

It became clear that, despite repeated protests from scientists and demands that science fairs be held according to strict scientific principles, there was basically no real scientific content in the exhibits at the fair.Still, there are small scientific thoughts that permeated my mind, and were instrumental in the development of my mind as a child.Companies and consumers are still the focus of the expo, and basically there is no exhibition content related to the scientific way of thinking, nor does it play a role in safeguarding the development of a free society. Half a century later, just before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ann Druyan and I were at a dinner party in a small village called Peridelkino outside Moscow.The tiny village is a summer retreat for Communist Party officials, retired generals and some favored intellectuals.There is an air of yearning for new freedoms—especially the right to express one's ideas, even ideas the government doesn't like to hear.The growing expectations harbored among the public are developing rapidly.

However, although the Soviet Union has begun to promote glasnost, there is still a lot of doubts among the people.Do those in power really allow freedom to criticize them?Will freedom of speech, assembly, press, and religious belief really be allowed?Can someone who has never experienced freedom withstand this kind of pressure? At the banquet, some Soviet citizens expressed their decades-long struggle for a freedom that most Americans take for granted.They were indeed inspired by the American experiment in democracy.Experiments done in this real world tell people that any nation, even a multicultural and multiracial nation, as long as these freedoms are protected by rationality, then this nation must be able to survive and prosper.They even talked about how freedom will bring more and more opportunities for a country to prosper, especially in the era of high technology and rapid development. The fate of freedom and scientific and technological development is closely linked. It is the same rise and fall.The openness of science and democracy, and the goals they want to achieve, must be judged through experiments, and experiments are closely related to ways of thinking.

Toasts were frequent at the banquet, as was the custom at meals in countries like the Soviet Union.What left the deepest impression on me was a world-renowned Soviet novelist.He stood up, raised his glass, gazed at us and said, "This drink is for the Americans. They enjoy a little freedom." He paused and added, "And they know how to protect freedom." Is it true? Before the ink on the Bill of Rights was dry, politicians found a way to overturn it — by exploiting fear and patriotism. In 1798, the ruling Federalist Party knew that racial and cultural prejudices were easy national sentiments to arouse.The Federalists took advantage of tensions between France and the United States, as well as widespread concerns that French and Irish immigrants were not inherently American, to pass a suite of bills known as the Alien and Sedition Acts.

One law increased citizenship residency by 5-14 years (citizens of French and Irish descent typically voted for their opposition, Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican party). The Alien Act gave President John Adams the power to deport any alien he deemed suspicious.A member of Congress said: "What disturbs the president is the new crime." Jefferson believed that the purpose of enacting the "Customer Act" was to expel the French historian and philosopher C. F. Volney, the authority of the famous chemical family. Scientists like El Samuel Dupont Denimour, the discoverer of oxygen, the English scientist Joseph Priestley, and the genius seer James Clerk Maxwell.In Jefferson's view, this is exactly what the United States needs.

The Sedition Act makes it illegal to publish "false or malicious" criticism of the government or to encourage opposition to any provision of the Act. More than 20 people were arrested, more than a dozen were convicted, and many more were searched or threatened with silence.Jefferson said the statute sought "to strike down all political opposition by criminalizing all criticism of Federalist officials and policies." Immediately after Jefferson's election, in the first week of his presidency in 1801, he granted amnesty to all victims of the Sedition Act.Because the law violates the American spirit of liberty, it's like Congress ordering us all to bow down five times to a golden bull, he said. In 1802, the contents of the Alien and Sedition Acts were expunged from various books.

For two centuries, the emotions that have driven the French mad and the "crazy Irish" have posed a serious threat to us, as if we were willing to give up our most precious look back.Appreciating the cultural achievements of France and Ireland, advocating equal rights for them, is in practice denigrated by conservatives as meek and conciliatory—an unrealistic political reform, but it is precisely this kind of advocacy that is always effective in governing society .Then there seems to be a deviation.When there is a deviation, we are bound to be drawn into a new frenzy. Those who seek power at any cost are always looking for social weaknesses, lest they fail to realize their dreams of power.It could be due to racial differences at the time, or it could be a difference in the amount of pigment in the skin, a difference in philosophy or religion, drug use, violent crime, economic crisis, school prayers, or "blasphemy" (a written term meaning insulting the sacred. things) flag.

Whatever the problem, the quick fix is ​​to take some liberties out of the Bill of Rights.Indeed, in 1942, Japanese-Americans were protected under the Bill of Rights, but we arrested them casually, after all, it was war time.It is true that the Constitution prohibits warrantless searches and detentions, but we are in the battle against drug use, and violent crime is out of control.Freedom of speech is also true, but we don't want foreign writers to spread foreign ideologies in the United States. Isn't that what we do?Every year we have different excuses, but the result is always the same: more power concentrated in the hands of a few and the suppression of diverse points of view—even though experience has clearly taught us how dangerous this is.

We cannot evaluate measures to protect ourselves from persecution by others if we do not know what we can do.I talked about the European witch hunt frenzy when I was talking about alien abductions.I hope readers will understand the political background of my re-discussion of this issue, through which we can get a glimpse of human self-knowledge.If we look closely at the religious and political institutions that provided what was considered admissible evidence and the fairness of trials during witch hunts from the 15th to the 17th centuries, we can see that the 18th century U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights Many of the fresh and unique features of ” are clearly visible: jury verdicts, anti-indictment prohibitions, prohibitions against torture and unusual punishment, freedom of speech and press, due process in trials, checks and balances of power, and separation of church and state. Friedrich von Hipp (pronounced "Shpay") was a Jesuit priest who had the misfortune to hear the confessions of those accused of witchcraft in the German city of Würzburg (see p. chapter). In 1631, he published Cautio Criminalis (Cautio Criminalis), which exposed the essence of terrorism against innocent people created by the church and Congress.He died of the plague with impunity, still a parish priest.Here is an excerpt from his cautionary book: 1. It is unbelievable how widespread superstition, envy, slander, slander, insinuation, etc. Punishment was not ostracized either, but suspicions of witchcraft began.It is no longer God or nature that is responsible for everything, but wizards. 2. Hence the clamor for the magistrates to investigate wizards--only public gossip would name so many wizards. 3. So the princes ordered the judges and lawyers to prosecute the witches. 4. Because the judges have no evidence or proof, therefore, they do not know on what grounds to sue. 5. At the same time, it was said that this delay was doubtful, and some informers, one after another, stated their doubts to the kings, so that the kings also thought it so. 6. Offending the kings is a great sin in Germany, and even priests are in favor of pleasing them as much as possible, regardless of who instigates these kings (but with good intentions). 7. So the judges finally had to bow to their wishes and plot how to start the trial. 8. Since there were still procrastinating judges who were afraid of getting involved in this delicate matter, a special investigator was sent for them.In terms of moderation, no matter how arrogant and inexperienced he may be in his work, he has to be seen as having a high level of devotion to justice.This enthusiasm is intensified when there is a hope for profit, especially if the investigator is poor and greedy and has a family. The witches who were burned took a lot of head fees and other salaries, which the investigators were allowed to extort at will from their summoners. 9. If a madman babbles and some vicious, nonsensical rumors (because no proof of libel is needed) are directed at some helpless old woman, she will be the first victim. 10. However, in order to avoid the appearance that she was prosecuted on the grounds of mere rumours, without any evidence, they drew a certain presumption of guilt by presenting the following two circumstances: She was living a wicked, Life is still a good, right life.If it is an evil life, then she will be considered guilty.Also, if she's leading a good life, it's not good for her either, because wizards always try to cover up their mistakes and try to look extra virtuous. 11. In this way, the old woman was thrown into prison.They found new evidence through a second judgment: whether she was afraid or not.If frightened (when she heard those ghastly sounds of torture used on witches), it was conclusive evidence.Because her conscience was condemned.If she shows no fear (believes her innocence), that's evidence too.Because wizards are good at pretending to be innocent, trying to appear brave and happy to hide their true feelings. 12. Feeling guilty about the little evidence, the investigators also appointed spies, usually depraved and evil, to investigate her past life.Of course, some of her claims or practices must be found out, so that those who handle the case at will can easily distort the truth or fabricate evidence of her witchcraft activities. 13. Anyone who thinks she is evil will now have ample opportunity to make whatever accusations they like against her.Everyone said the evidence against her was strong. 14. In this way, she was soon started to be tortured.It is also not uncommon for these wizards to be tortured on the day of their arrest. 15. During the course of these trials, no one is allowed to use a lawyer or otherwise defend himself impartially, because witchcraft is considered an extraordinary crime (all rules of legal procedure for this crime can be deferred), and anyone who took the risk of defending a prisoner would end up being suspected of witchcraft himself.The same will be the case for those who dare to protest the manner in which these cases are decided, and urge the judges to proceed with caution, for they will be immediately convicted as proponents of witchcraft.So all the people are silent out of fear. 16. So it seems that the woman has a little chance to defend herself.She was taken to court, the charges against her crimes were read by the judge, and a trial - if that could be called a trial - began. 17. Even though she denies the indictments and satisfactorily answers the questions posed by each of them, no one will take her word for it and her pleas will not even be recorded.No matter how flawless her answers, all the accusations still have their original force and their validity has not been compromised in any way.She was ordered to be sent back to prison again, to think carefully about whether she was still stubborn - because she had denied her crime, so she was considered stubborn. 18. She was brought out again the next day to hear a decree on torture as if she never refuted the prosecution. 19. However, before the sentence was imposed, court officials searched her for amulets: she was shaved from all over, even her private parts, a practice that showed that women could be examined as they pleased. 20. What could be so shocking?Even priests are treated in the same way. 21. After the woman was shaved and frisked, she was tortured to make her tell the truth, that is to say what they wanted, because in the normal state nothing said would be, It can't be the truth either. 22. They started to use the first step of torture, which is relatively less severe punishment.Although this is actually quite harsh, it is still relatively light compared to the subsequent punishment.If she confesses because of this, they will say the woman confessed without torture! 23. Now, when they tell the king that this woman has confessed her crime without being tortured, what doubts can she have? 24. Then she was put to death without delay.But even if she didn't confess, she could have been put to death.Because once the torture starts, she is doomed, she cannot escape, she must die. 25. Whether she admits it or not, the result is the same.If she confesses, her guilt is unmistakable: she will be sentenced to death.No matter how she expresses her contrition, it will be in vain.If she did not confess, she would be tortured repeatedly, two, three, four times.For particular crimes, the duration, severity and frequency of torture are unlimited. 26. During the torture, if the old woman's countenance was contorted with pain, they said she was laughing; if she fainted, then she had fallen asleep or had cast a spell to silence herself.If she remains silent, she must be burned to resuscitation, just as if, despite repeated torture, she still does not say what the investigator wishes to hear, in this case these people will be tortured. A burning torture. 27. Even the confessors and clergymen thought she died of obstinacy and lack of remorse; she could not convert, nor renounce her wicked ideas, unless she was faithful to them. 28. However, if she dies under this torture, they say that the devil cut her neck. 29. So her body was buried under the gallows. 30. To put it another way, if she hadn’t died under torture, if there were some very upright judges who didn’t want to torture her again without getting more evidence, and didn’t want to burn her to death before she confessed, then , she will continue to be imprisoned and chained more cruelly, unless she finally confesses her mistake, otherwise, even if she is locked up for a whole year, she will not be released until she starves to death in prison, rot. 31. She will never be able to clear herself of the crime.If a committee of inquiry acquits a woman, they feel it is a disgrace.As long as this woman is arrested and chained, she must be guilty, and it must be proved by just or vicious means. 32. Meanwhile, the wayward and ignorant priests tormented the poor woman, making her confess her guilt, whatever the truth might be.If she didn't, they said, she was incorrigible and could not take Communion. 33. The more learned priests could not visit her in prison, lest they should be thought to be advising her, or telling the truth of the king's affairs.There is nothing more terrifying than exposing and proving the innocence of the accused, and anyone who tries to do so is considered a troublemaker. 34. While she was imprisoned and tortured, the judges came up with many clever schemes to compile new evidence against her so that, when reviewing the verdict, certain university teachers could confirm that she was burned alive The judgment is correct. 35. Some seemingly upright judges forced the woman to exorcise evil spirits, transferred her to another place, and tortured her continuously to make her confess.If she persisted in not confessing to the crime, they would burn her at the end.I want to know now, in the name of God, how could these people, however innocent, escape this dreadful punishment, since she died the same if she confessed or not?Poor woman, why do you hope for the court without knowing the consequences?Why don't you admit everything they want to know when you first go to jail?Foolish and mad woman, why do you die many times when you can die once?Heed my advice, and confess your sin before you suffer all that flesh and blood, and die.You can't get away with it, because it would be a catastrophic disgrace to German fanaticism. 36. When the witch confessed her crime under the pressure of great pain, her situation will be indescribable.Not only would she not be able to escape, but she would be forced to accuse people she didn't even know, whose names the investigator kept bringing up and forcing her to speak out, or the executioner lured her into saying that they might as well be the names she heard. of some of those suspected or prosecuted.Those people were forced to accuse others, who were forced to accuse others.Go on like this: since this kind of thing has to go on, who can stop it? 37. What judges do must be to suspend trials (thus imputing their legality) or to burn their own relatives and friends, themselves, or others.Because sooner or later all of these will be falsely accused, and if tortured, all will be proven guilty. 38. Thus, the fanciers who at first yelled the loudest were themselves involved in the end, because they were too hasty to realize that their own doom was coming.So God justly punishes those who have concocted so many witches with their loathsome tongues, and sent so many innocents to the stake... Von Hipper was not very clear about the brutal methods used in torture.The following is an excerpt from an invaluable compilation, The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Magic, edited by Russell Hope Robbins (1959): You can look at some of the special punishments that people used in the Bamberg area, for example, the prisoner was forced to eat fresh fish cooked with salt, but he was not given water to drink after that.In a similarly elaborate practice, prisoners were plunged into boiling water laced with lime.Ways to deal with wizards include wooden horses, various torture racks, red-hot iron chairs, leg clamps (Spanish boots), and large leather or metal boots into which hot boiling water or melted lead is poured. (with feet inside, of course).In waterboarding (question de leau), water is stuffed down the prisoner's throat along with a soft cloth to suffocate him.Then, quickly pull out the cloth, so that the internal organs and intestines will be broken and broken.Thumb grips (gresillons) are a specially designed vise that presses the thumb or big toe to the base of the nail. The enormous pressure on the finger or toe can produce excruciating pain. Apart from this, the more frequent use of hangings, and other more horrific tortures, I shall not describe them.After the torture, and using what is considered a commonplace tool of torture, the victim signs a confession.This confession is called a "free confession" of voluntary admission. At great personal risk, von Hipper spoke out against witchcraft fever.Opposed to this fanaticism were others, chiefly Catholic and Protestant clergymen who had witnessed the crime—including Cianfrancisc Ponzinibbio in Italy in the sixteenth century, Cornelli in Germany, Erth Loos and Reginald Scott in England and Johnny Meforth in seventeenth-century Germany (“Listen, you money-hungry judges and bloodthirsty prosecutors, the devil appears are lies") and Spain's Alonzo Sanaca de Foyes.They are as much our human heroes as von Hippel and the Quakers, so why shouldn't they be better known? In "Candle in the Dark" (1656), Thomas Eddy articulated a key question: Some people will come out to object again, and say, if witches can't kill, and do some strange things with witchcraft, why do so many witches admit that they have done murder and other strange things they are accused of? My answer to this is that if Adam and Eve were so gullible and lured into sinning, how could those poor souls in trouble not be forced to admit What about things that are false, impossible, and contrary to the Christian faith? The possibility of hallucinatory components in the persecutions of witches was not seriously considered until the 18th century.Bishop Francis Hutcheson wrote in his Historical Essay on Witchcraft (1718): Many a person is convinced that he sees an external ghost, when in fact it is only an inner phantom active in his mind. Witch-burning eventually died out as the courage of fanatical opponents of witchcraft infected the privileged and at the same time the establishment of the capitalist system was taking hold, especially with the widespread spread of Enlightenment ideas in Europe.In Holland, home of the Age of Enlightenment, the last executions of wizards took place in 1610; in England in 1684; in the United States in 1692; in France in 1745; in Germany in 1775; in Poland in 1793.In Italy the death penalty was used in trials until the end of the 18th century, and in the Catholic Church the practice of torture in interrogations was not abolished until 1816.The Christian Church was the last supporter of the reality of witchcraft and the necessity of punishment. The persecution craze for witchcraft is shameful.How can we do this?How can we be so ignorant and ignorant of ourselves and our weaknesses?How could this phenomenon happen in the most "developed" and "civilized" country on earth at that time?Why is it so strongly supported by Conservatives, monarchists and religious fundamentalists?Why is this phenomenon objected to by liberals, Quakers, and followers of Enlightenment thought?If we stand firm in our belief that our beliefs are right and others' are wrong; our motives are good and others' are evil; Believers of different faiths; it is evil to challenge traditional beliefs or to ask probing questions; all we need to do is believe and obey; then the persecution mania for witches will come in all different forms Continue until the last person.Note that the first point made by Friedrich von Hipper and the implications of improving public understanding of superstition and skepticism may help us quickly find answers throughout causation.If we don't know how things unfolded on the final ring, we won't be able to recognize it for what it is when it reappears. Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels said: "It is the absolute right of the government to exercise control over the formation of public opinion." In George Orwell's novel, the "Big Brother" state employs a large number of bureaucrats who specialize in falsifying history records to cater to the interests of those in power.Not simply a compelling political fiction, it's based on real facts about the Stalinist Soviet Union.The falsification of history is institutionalized in this country.Soon after Stalin came to power, portraits of his rival Leon Trotsky - a great figure in the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 - began to disappear. A new generation has grown up convinced that this is their history.And older generations are starting to feel like they're reminded of something, which is a political false memory syndrome.Orwell described the way of thinking that aligns their true memories with what their leaders want them to believe as "doublethink."Those who would not conform, those old Bolsheviks who could still remember Stalin's secondary role in the revolution and Trotsky's in fact the main one, were accused of being traitors, unreformable bourgeois or "Trotsky elements" or "Trotsky fascists" who were imprisoned, tortured, forced to publicly confess their treason, and then executed.If you have absolute control over the media and the police, if you have a generation to achieve your goals, it is possible to rewrite the memory of millions of people.Almost at all times, this approach is used to satisfy those in power's need for increased control and the narcissistic, megalomaniac, paranoid needs of national leaders.It makes the mechanism of correcting errors completely a process of human control.Its effect is to make the public forget the great political mistakes they have made, so that they can be guaranteed to make the same mistakes in the end. In our time, there is technically no problem with wholesale falsification of real still lifes, moving pictures, and audio tapes.In our age, when there is a television in every home and critical thinking skills are on the decline, it seems possible to re-invent new social memories, even without the undue attention of the secret police.What I am imagining here is not that state-appointed psychiatrists are in special treatment rooms planting pre-programmed memories in each of our heads.What I am talking about is that a small number of people have strong control over news reports and history books. Their control over public opinion profoundly affects various images in people's minds, and even produces major changes in the overall attitude of the public. All that we say is weakly confirmed by actual events in 1990-1991.During that time, the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein underwent a sudden transformation in the minds of Americans from a close ally who was not known - able to produce good goods, possess high technology , well-armed, and even possessed of satellite intelligence data—become a monster that endangers the world and covets the wealth of its neighbors.I'm not a huge admirer of Mr. Hussein myself, but it's amazing how quickly he's gone from someone Americans have barely heard of to evil incarnate.These days, infuriating government agencies are busy with other things.Are we confident that the power to shape and control public opinion will always remain in responsible hands? Another real example is the "war" on drugs.Governments and generously funded civic groups systematically distort and even fabricate the scientific evidence for the harmful side effects of drugs (especially marijuana) in a way that no public official is allowed to bring the subject to public discussion. But it is very difficult to keep the convincing historical truth locked away forever.New databases are constantly being made public.A new, less ideologically influenced generation of historians has grown up. In the late 1980s and before that, Ann Druyan and I also periodically illegally brought some of Trotsky's book, The History of the Russian Revolution, to the Soviet Union so that our colleagues could learn something about their own political origins. the truth.On the 50th anniversary of Trotsky's murder (Stalin's assassin smashed Trotsky's head with a hammer), Izvestia was able to praise Trotsky as a "great, irreproachable" revolutionary.A KPD publication further described him as: He fought for those of us who love human civilization, and for those who love human civilization, civilization is our national spirit.The executioners who murdered him... tried to kill him and kill our civilization....In his head are the thoughts of the highest value, and he has the clearest minds, which a hammer can never break. There is now an emerging tendency to instil the public with perceptions, historical events, and opinions determined only by a few, including the control of major television networks and newspapers by a small number of powerful corporations and individuals with similar motives.In many cities, competitive newspapers have disappeared, the debate of independent forces has been replaced by a retreat in political movements, and the principle of separation of powers has been gradually weakened.According to a survey conducted by American media expert Ben Bagdekin, no more than 24 companies control more than half of "global commercial daily newspapers, magazines, television, books and movies".The proliferation of cable TV channels, cheap long-distance calls, fax machines, cheap computer bulletin boards and computer networks, the ability to self-publish works on computers for a fraction of the cost, and the existing traditional liberal arts university curriculum exhibited completely opposite direction of development. It is difficult to determine the direction of its development. The business of the skeptic is a dangerous business.Skepticism challenges the existing system.If we educated everyone, including high school students, to think skeptically, they probably wouldn't just think skeptically about UFOs, aspirin commercials, and 35,000-year-old human beings. God talked to the masters too.Maybe they'll start asking embarrassing questions about economic, social, political or religious institutions.Perhaps they will challenge the views of those in power.What will happen to our society by then? Recently, anthropocentrism, blind xenophobic consciousness and nationalism are prevalent in various parts of the world.Governments' repression of views they dislike remains widespread.False or misleading historical events are forced upon the general public.For those who maintain this view, science is a mess.It advocates the pursuit of truth that is largely independent of racial and cultural bias.The most fundamental nature of science is not to be limited by national boundaries.若把同一研究领域的科学家放在一个屋子里，即使他们在语言上并不相通，他们也会找到交流的方法。科学本身就是一种跨国界的语言。科学家本能地就有四海皆一家的理想，他们不可能通过研究将人类大家庭划分为许多小的、敌对的团体。俄国剧作家安东·契诃夫说：“不存在属于哪个国家的科学，就像不存在属于哪个国家的乘法表一样。”(其它很多东西也是如此，比如虽然民族主义的宗教有成千上万的信徒，却并不存在一种类似国家宗教的东西。) 科学家在社会批评家(或者用不太宽容的说法，叫做“持不同政见者”)的队伍中占有不成比例的数量。他们对自己国家的政策和神话提出挑战。前苏联物理学家安德烈·萨哈罗夫、美国的阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦和利奥·西拉特这些勇敢者的名字很容易出现在人们的脑海中，他们是始终一贯地将自己的生命置之度外的人。特别是在由于核武器的发明而给人类带来灾难后，科学家们被描绘成道德白痴。当你考虑到所有那些有时要冒着巨大的个人风险，说出反对自己国家错误使用科学技术的言论的人们，这种说法是不公正的。 比如，化学家莱纳斯·鲍林(1901-1994)在1963年签署《禁止核武器实验条约》的工作中比其他任何人都承担了更大的责任。该条约阻止了美国、苏联和英国在地面进行核武器爆炸试验。他将反核试验运动逐步推向深入，直至演变成谴责对道德的残暴践踏的运动。由于他是诺贝尔奖获得者，因此，他提供的科学数据使人们感到更为可信。他由于对核试验的阻拦，使得美国新闻界在有关他的报道中有意地进行了贬低。50年代，美国国务院取消了他的护照，因为他没有全力反对共产主义。由于他在量子力学应用方面的研究成果而获得了诺贝尔奖。他的研究成果包括共振态以及所谓杂化轨道等，他说明了化学键与原子结合人分子的化学键的本质，这些思想已经成为现代化学的基石。但是，在苏联，鲍林在结构化学方面的研究工作被指责为与辩证唯物主义原理相违背，并宣布苏联化学家禁止研究他的理论。 鲍林并没有被这些来自东方或西方的批评所吓倒——实际上，对他的批评一直没有减弱——他继续进行麻醉剂作用的不懈研究，他证明了镰形红细胞贫血症的病因(DNA中唯一核苷酸被其它核酸所取代)，并且说明了如何通过对各种有机体的DNA的比较来了解生命进化的历史。他竭尽全力研究DNA结构并取得了重要的进展；沃森和克里克有意地加快研究步伐，在鲍林获得最终结果之前取得成功。他对维生素C的评价至今仍然有效、爱因斯坦在评价他时说：“那个人是个真正的天才。” 与此同时，他继续为和平与友好而努力工作。当安和我问鲍林他为什么如此热心社会问题的时，他给了我们一个难忘的回答：“我做这些事的目的是出于我对妻子的尊重。”也就是海伦·艾娃·鲍林。他获得了第二个诺贝尔奖，这次是和平奖，表彰他在禁止核试验方面所做的贡献。他成为历史上唯一两次独立获得诺贝尔奖的人。 有人将鲍林看做是爱惹是生非的人。那些不喜欢社会变化的人可能很容易接受对科学所持的怀疑态度。他们认为，技术是安全的，容易受企业和政府的引导和控制。但是，纯科学，为科学本身而进行的科学研究，为满足科学家的好奇心而进行的科学研究，对科学不加任何限制，任由科学随意发展，用科学挑战所有的事物，那就是另外一回事了。纯科学的某些领域是未来技术得以开发的唯一途径，这是千真万确的。如果技术得到广泛的应用，那么，对科学的这种态度应该被看做是危险的。社会利用工资、社会压力和名誉与报酬的分配等手段，竭力将科学家驱赶到比较安全的中间地带，这个中间地带介于收获很小的长期技术进步和过多的短期社会批评之间。 很多科学家不像鲍林那样，将他们的研究工作看成狭义的科学。他们认为，参与政治或参与社会批评不是脱离科学生活，而是科学生活不可或缺的组成部分。正如我在前面所提到的，在执行曼哈顿计划时，二战中美国成功地赶在纳粹之前研制出了核武器。一些参与研究的科学家们开始有了保留意见，当这些武器的巨大威力清楚地显示出来的时候，对这种武器的保留意见也就越来越多。有些科学家，如，利奥·西拉特、詹姆斯·弗兰克、哈罗德·尤里和罗伯特·R·威尔逊等，竭力引起政治领导人和公众(特别是在粉碎纳粹之后)对即将出现的军备竞赛的危险的注意。他们非常清楚地预见到这种军备竞赛将在美国和苏联之间展开。其他人认为，政策问题不是他们应该管的事情。恩里克·费米说：“我是为了作出一些发现才来到这个地球上的，政治领导人的所作所为与我无关。”但是尽管如此，费米还是被爱德华·泰勒所鼓吹的热核武器的危险所震惊，他与其它科学家联合签署了一份著名的文件，敦促美国不要制造核武器，他将这种武器说成是“罪恶的”东西。 在前一章我已讲过泰勒总是为热核武器辩护，美国科学家联合会主席杰里米·斯通用下面的话来描述他： 爱德华·泰勒……起初是由于个人才智的原因，后来则是由于地缘政治的原因而坚持要制造氢弹的主张。他使用夸大其辞，甚至诽谤的手法，成功地操纵着政策制定过程达50年之久，斥责所有形式的军备控制措施，并且促进各种加强军备竞赛的计划。苏联听说了他的氢弹制造计划后，也制造了自己的氢弹。由这个特别人物的不寻常的个性和氢弹的巨大威力所产生的直接后果是，这个世界将面临着被毁灭的危险。这种毁灭的命运要么降临到人类，要么推迟降临，或许能置于更好的政治控制之下。 如果是这样的话，那么没有哪一个科学家比爱德华·泰勒更能使整个人类承担风险，泰勒在整个军备竞赛过程中的行为是应受到谴责的。 爱德华·泰勒对于氢弹的执着可能使他比我们人类中任何一个人都有可能做出更多危害这个星球的事情…… 与泰勒相比，西方原子科学的领头人经常在政治困境中受人左右。在这方面，他们的领导能力应该由他们的专业技能而不是由政治技巧所决定。 我在此并不是想指责某位科学家屈服于人类的某些激情，而是想重申这种新的责任：握有权力的人必须与科学团体的道德关注和关心程度相辅相成，必须建立在最广泛的对公众进行的科学与民主重要性的教育基础之上。 The unprecedented energies that science makes possible require an unprecedented level of ethical concern in the scientific community and the broadest infusion of the importance of science and democracy into public education.