The emperor's mausoleum and its auxiliary buildings are collectively referred to as the mausoleum.my country lasted more than 3,000 years from the Xia Dynasty, the first slavery dynasty, to the Qing Dynasty, the last feudal dynasty. During this period, there were more than 500 emperors in the unified dynasty and local regime established by the Han nationality and other ethnic minorities.So far, there are still more than 100 imperial tombs (places) with traces on the ground and clear eras, distributed in more than half of the provinces and regions in the country.my country's imperial mausoleums are not only numerous and have a long history, they are unique in the world; they also have a rigorous layout, magnificent architecture, exquisite workmanship, and a unique style, occupying an important position in the history of world culture.

Although the imperial mausoleums appeared in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, the basic burial system such as the shape of the mausoleum, burial utensils, and etiquette originated in an earlier primitive society. The cavemen who lived in Zhoukoudian, Beijing about 18,000 years ago already had a tomb for the dead, and they buried the tools, utensils, and decorations used by the dead during their lifetime.Then came the Neolithic Age, which lasted thousands of years, and hundreds of burial sites belonging to different ethnic groups were found all over the place.These cemeteries belong to clan public cemeteries divided by blood.The position, head orientation, burial style, burial system, and the combination and quantity of the dead have certain rules, and the status of each member is basically equal.

About 4,000-5,000 years ago, some tribes in the Yellow River Basin and Yangtze River Basin in my country experienced a polarization between rich and poor due to the development of productivity and the expansion of social division of labor.This change is reflected in the burials, as large tombs with many and exquisite burial objects have been found in many places, as well as joint burial tombs in which women are attached to men.Among the 133 tombs found in the Dawenkou Cultural Cemetery in Tai'an, Shandong, 14 used wooden coffins. Each tomb contained about 30 to 40 pieces of burial objects, and the largest one reached more than 180 pieces.

The Taosi site in Xiangfen, Shanxi Province, which is in the transition period from the end of primitive society to slave society, is closely related to "Xia" in both age and region.Among the more than 1,000 tombs that have been excavated, there are only nine large tombs, accounting for less than 1% of the total.These large tombs are arranged in an orderly manner. Most of the dead are men.There are as many as one or two hundred burial objects in each tomb, including sets of pottery, wood, jade, stone and other musical instruments, weapons, tools and various living utensils, some of which are ritual vessels of a ceremonial nature.The exterior of the pottery is painted in various colors, with patterns such as cloud patterns and fretwork, and the inner wall of a pottery plate is painted with a dragon pattern that may belong to the clan and tribe symbols.Painted wooden utensils include case, Zu, Ji, plate and so on.A special chime made of limestone is more than 80 centimeters long.In addition, whole pigs or pig mandibles were buried as sacrifices.The shape of these large tombs has inherited and developed the characteristics of the tombs of the tribes in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River since the Neolithic Age, and established the basic form of tombs in the Central Plains of my country for thousands of years.

Around the beginning of the 21st century BC, Qi, the son of Yu, made himself king, and the throne was changed to hereditary, thus establishing the first dynasty in Chinese history—Xia.Since then, as the supreme rulers, the emperors of all dynasties not only built luxurious palaces during their lifetime, but also built grand mausoleums after death, hoping to continue to enjoy themselves.By the Qin and Han Dynasties, mausoleums and auxiliary buildings with various functions had formed a group of large-scale buildings with strict layout, and a complete system of sacrificial ceremony system and mausoleum area management had also been formed.After the Qin and Han dynasties, the layout of mausoleums and cemeteries, the setting, structure, and functions of various buildings, the construction form of mausoleums, and the types and combinations of sacrificial objects have both been inherited and developed. The mausoleums retain the burial customs of the nation to varying degrees.The mausoleums of the past dynasties and their changes reflect the political, economic and cultural conditions of each era in a concentrated manner.

Since the Xia and Shang dynasties, the tombs of the emperors of all dynasties have been concentrated in one area according to the family blood relationship, implementing the burial system of "the son is buried with the father, and the ancestors continue".There is also a certain area around the mausoleum and auxiliary buildings as a protection and control area, which is called the mausoleum area.The mausoleum occupies an astonishingly large area, with a circumference ranging from a few dozen miles to more than a hundred miles, or even hundreds of miles.All kinds of buildings in the mausoleum area have careful planning and layout.The setting of the mausoleum area appeared in the late Shang Dynasty at the latest and lasted until the Qing Dynasty.Mausoleum areas are generally chosen to be built not far from the capital.After the Eastern Han Dynasty, the selection of the mausoleum area was influenced, and most of the mausoleums were facing the river or facing the plain with a wide view.

Archaeological excavation data show that the emperors after Pan Geng moved to Yin in the late Shang Dynasty were buried in the north of Huan River in Anyang, in the area of ​​Wuguan Village and Houjiazhuang, across the river from Xiaotun palace area.The mausoleums are densely arranged, forming a relatively concentrated mausoleum area.The kings of the two weeks and the kings and princes of other countries also had their own mausoleums.Some were built in flat areas outside the city, some were built in hilly areas outside the capital, and some were built in a corner of the city.The arrangement of the mausoleums has been planned to a certain extent.

The mausoleums of Western Han emperors are distributed on Erdaoyuan in the northwest of Chang'an, lined up from east to west, stretching for dozens of kilometers.The 18 imperial mausoleums of the Tang Dynasty are distributed in Erdaoyuan and Beishan Mountains in the northern part of the Guanzhong Basin, stretching for more than 100 kilometers from east to west.The distribution of the mausoleums is relatively scattered and can form a mausoleum area by itself, but their arrangement has internal connections and can also be regarded as a unified mausoleum area. Most of the imperial mausoleums of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty are composed of several imperial mausoleums, forming several relatively concentrated smaller mausoleum areas.The layout of the mausoleums of the Ming and Qing Dynasties changed greatly. Each mausoleum centered on a main mausoleum, and the other mausoleums were arranged in the order of left, Zhao, and right.The setting of this centralized mausoleum area is not only convenient for management, but also can create a grand momentum.

During the Qin and Western Han Dynasties, cities were set up near the mausoleum area, and they were named after the mausoleum.In the fifteenth year of Qin Shihuang (232 BC), Liyi was set up for the construction of the cemetery.Before Emperor Cheng of the Western Han Dynasty, all the mausoleums were set up nearby, and the nobles and relatives of the Guandong clan and their relatives were enshrined in the mausoleum for control.Since then, no mausoleums have been set up in the mausoleums of various dynasties. The cemetery may have appeared in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.In the early cemeteries, some used natural ditches and cliffs as barriers, and most of them dug ditches or rammed walls around the mausoleum.There is a gate on one side of the cemetery, and there are no other auxiliary buildings in the garden except the mausoleum.

By the time of Qin Shihuang, the layout of the cemetery not only inherited the mausoleum system of the Qin State, but also absorbed some practices of the mausoleums of the six eastern countries, with a larger scale and more complete facilities.Generally speaking, it is modeled on the planning and layout of the capital palace, which fully embodies the supremacy of the feudal imperial power in the centralized system.Double walls were built in the cemetery, and turrets for guards were set up at the four corners of the outer city.According to the practice of taking the west as the top at that time, the entire cemetery faces east from the west.In the cemetery, there are sleeping halls, toilet halls, left and right official buildings and funeral pits.To the east of the cemetery, there are burial tombs and pits for terracotta warriors and horses.

The buildings used for sacrifices on mausoleums originated very early, and appeared at the latest in the late Shang Dynasty.By the Warring States Period, this kind of architecture had become common on the mausoleums of princes and monarchs.Qin Shihuang not only built an ancestral temple for himself in the south of the Weishui River before his death, set up a god, but also built a dormitory beside the mausoleum, and set up clothes and utensils so that he could receive daily sacrifices nearby. The Western Han Dynasty inherited the mausoleum system of the Qin Dynasty and developed it.The plane of the cemetery is square, with only one city, and the mausoleum is located in the center of the cemetery.All the mausoleums sit west and face east.Among the gates on all sides, the east gate and north gate are wider, which is consistent with the regulation of the palace gates in Chang'an City.The burial area is also in front of the mausoleum.In the early Western Han Dynasty, the emperors and empresses were buried together in different caves in a cemetery.The sleeping hall is built in the cemetery, and the mausoleum temple is built in the capital far away from the mausoleum.Beginning with Emperor Wen, each emperor and empress built a cemetery, imitating the location of the palace before his death, with the emperor's mausoleum in the west and the empress' mausoleum in the east.The dormitory and other buildings were moved from the cemetery to outside the cemetery wall, and their orientation was determined by the terrain.During the reign of Emperor Jing, a temple was built next to Emperor Wen's mausoleum, and this system of erecting temples next to the mausoleum continued until the end of the Western Han Dynasty. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the layout of the cemetery changed greatly.Since Emperor Ming, no walls were set up around the cemetery, and "horses" (wooden security facilities) were used instead.The mausoleum is changed to face south, which is in the same direction as Luoyang Palace City.The system of setting up temples next to the mausoleum was abolished, and a "stone hall" was built in front of the mausoleum for regular worship and sacrificial ceremonies to strengthen the function of tomb sacrifices.This had a great influence on the setting of the dedicated hall and upper palace after the Tang and Song Dynasties.Shinto and stone carvings are generally set up in front of each mausoleum. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, due to the separation of regimes, frequent wars, and economic decline, most emperors had to temporarily abandon the system of building luxurious mausoleums and rich burials since the Qin and Han Dynasties.The monarchs of the Wei, Western Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms periods in the north were either afraid of being robbed, or adopted their own burial customs.During the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty, due to political and economic stability and development and the implementation of Sinicization reforms, the mausoleum system of the Han Dynasty began to be restored.For example, Fangshan Yonggu Mausoleum (Civilized Empress Dowager Mausoleum) in Datong City not only has tall tombs, but also has stone structures, stone gates, and stone carvings in front of them.Most of the imperial mausoleums of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasties have mountains as their bodies, and their directions are determined by the situation of mountains and rivers, without certain rules.The hall of enjoyment was built in front of the tomb and the etiquette of going to the mausoleum in the Han Dynasty was restored.There is a long Shinto way in front of the mausoleum, and stone carvings are set on both sides. The mausoleums of the Tang Dynasty are not only larger than those of the previous dynasties, but also have a more careful layout.Starting from the Qianling Mausoleum, the plane layout of the cemetery all imitated the regulatory design of Chang'an City.From north to south, the cemetery can be divided into three parts from back to front: the first part is the mausoleum and sacrificial buildings.A tall mound was built on the tomb, standing high in the north of the cemetery.In front of the tomb, a dedicated hall (bedroom hall) was built for worshiping the mausoleum and holding important ceremonies. Walls were built around it, with a door on each side.This arrangement of the front and the rear is similar to the Miyagi in Chang'an City.Most of the sleeping palaces (lower palaces) for the living of souls and the residence of palace people and officials are built a few miles southwest of the cemetery.This system of dividing the hall of dedication and the bedroom into two places further highlights the importance of sacrificial ceremonies.The second part is Que and Shinto.The south gate of the cemetery (Suzaku Gate) faces south, and there are three pairs of earth gates.Stone men, stone horses, etc. are displayed on both sides of the Shinto in between.This part symbolizes the government offices of the three provinces and nine temples in the imperial city of Chang'an.The third part is the accompanying tombs dotted on both sides of the front.This part is similar to the Fangli of Guocheng outside Chang'an City.The entire layout takes the south gate as the main entrance, the north-south axis as the central axis, and the east-west symmetry, which embodies the design idea of ​​standing in the south and facing in the north.The layout of the cemetery in the Tang Dynasty had a great influence on the tombs of later generations. The layout of the mausoleum in the Northern Song Dynasty basically followed the system of the Tang Dynasty, except that the lower palace was moved from the front of the mausoleum to the north.After the death of the emperors of the Southern Song Dynasty, in order to be buried in the Central Plains in the future, only temporary mausoleums were built. The scale is small and the building is simple. There is neither a mausoleum platform nor a group of stone carvings.The upper palace and the lower palace are built in front of the mausoleum, arranged on a north-south central axis.The upper palace is in front, and there is a dedicated hall inside.The Yuan Dynasty followed the Mongolian "submerged burial" burial custom. No graves were afforded, and the ground was leveled by horses after the burial. The layout of the Ming and Qing cemeteries basically followed the regulations of the Tang and Song Dynasties, and was influenced by the architectural pattern of the palaces at that time. The layout of the upper and lower palaces was abandoned, and all kinds of buildings were assembled on a north-south central axis.The cemetery was changed from square to rectangular.The mausoleum and the dedicated hall are separated by a wall and become two independent building groups.The front part includes two courtyards: in the first courtyard, apart from the gate of the mausoleum, there are stele pavilions, divine kitchens, and divine treasury on both sides; The abolition of the old system of residence and service for the former palace people has highlighted the pilgrimage and sacrifice functions of the mausoleum.The rear buildings are Fangcheng, Minglou, Baocheng and Baoding.The whole layout fully embodies the palace architectural mode of the front court and the back bedroom, which is orderly, distinct, grand and solemn. Que is an important part of the cemetery.The construction of the gate in front of the mausoleum began in the Western Han Dynasty, and originated from the erection of the gate outside the palace gate.Starting from the Yangling Mausoleum of Emperor Jingdi, all the mausoleums of the Han Dynasty built double gates outside the four gates.According to literature records, the emperor at that time used "three out of the gate", that is, the main gate in the middle and the connected sub-queen on both sides.The que foundation of the existing Han Mausoleum is rammed, with a residual height of 315 meters, a surface width of about 38 meters, and a depth of about 9 meters. It may belong to the "three out que".At that time, the upper part of the que was made of wooden structure, which has long since disappeared.Stone gates with imitation wood structures appeared in the Eastern Han Dynasty. At present, there are more than 20 existing ones in China, most of which belong to the stone gates in front of tombs in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.The que is divided into several parts: base, body, building, and roof. Columns, squares, bucket arches, windows, rafters, and tile decorations are carved on the outside.Que were rarely used in mausoleums during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.During the Tang and Song Dynasties, there was a further development of the building in front of the mausoleum.There are multiple gates outside the south gate of the cemetery.In addition to building the gate outside the garden, a tall inner and outer double gate was built at the southern end of the Shinto, which are called Magpie Terrace and Rutai respectively.Que are all rammed, with bricks and stones on the outside, and buildings on the top.In the accompanying tombs of Zhaoling and Qianling, such as the tomb murals of the tombs of Princess Yangcheng, Prince Yide and Princess Yongtai, the image of Que in Tang Dynasty can be seen.After the Ming Dynasty, although the que was no longer built in front of the mausoleum, this legacy system can still be seen from the entrance of the mausoleum area.For example, the Dahongmen of the Ming Tombs was built between Mangshan Mountain and Hushan Mountain, with protruding peaks on both sides, making use of the natural situation to form the image of Que. Most of the literature records that mounds were built on tombs in the late Spring and Autumn Period.For example, "Book of Rites Tan Gong" records that Confucius built a mound for his parents' tomb and believed that there was no mound before, that is, "no seal, no tree", "tomb without grave, flush with the ground".However, archaeological discoveries have shown that the tombs of the upper rulers of the slave owners in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties have been sealed with soil, but they are not very tall.Since the middle period of the Warring States period, after the death of the monarchs of Zhao, Qin, Chu, Yan, Qi, Han and other countries, they have built tall tombs and mounds, and they are honored as "lings".It means that it is as tall as a mountain mausoleum, and it also symbolizes the dignity of the king and the lofty status.The mounds have been rammed and are very strong, and their shapes can be roughly divided into two types: conical and overturned bucket. The tomb of the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang is the largest known so far. It is all built with rammed earth, square in plane, and in the shape of a covered bucket as a whole.The mounds of the mausoleums of the Han Dynasty are also in the shape of a bucket, called "Fangshang", and there are obvious grade differences in height and size.In the Tang Dynasty, the square overturned bucket style was still the most expensive way to erect the tombs on the flat ground. Among them, the double-layer step style was the highest level, and there were also grades for the height of the tomb mound.This mound shape was used until the Song Dynasty and affected the border minority areas.Some existing stone tombs of Goguryeo in Ji'an, Jilin and the tombs of Tibetan kings in Tibet's Tubo period all adopt this shape.The mausoleum of King Tai in Koguryo is built with huge granite strips, in the shape of a square cone, with a side length of 66 meters and a residual height of 14.8 meters. It is known as the Oriental Pyramid.After the Tang Dynasty, circular mounds appeared in the imperial tombs.For example, the Second Tomb of the Southern Tang Dynasty in Nanjing and the Yongling Mausoleum of Qianshu in Chengdu are all round, and a stone foundation is built at the lower part to protect the sealing soil.The mounds of the Xixia Mausoleum are in the shape of octagonal or conical towers, which is quite special.In the Ming Dynasty, when Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang built the Xiaoling Mausoleum, influenced by the southern tradition, the mound was changed to a circular shape, called Baoding.The Qing Dynasty continued to use this system.Bricks are built around the top of the treasure, and there is a wall on it, which is called Baocheng. In the Ming Dynasty, it was mostly round, and in the Qing Dynasty, it was mostly oblong.The Fang Chengming Building is built in the front, forming a castle-like building as a whole. Beginning in the Western Han Dynasty, in addition to the tombs of the emperors, there was a form of "cutting mountains to make mausoleums" in addition to the tombs of the emperors.This kind of shape was also common in the tombs of some princes and kings at that time, and it was found in Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and other places.Since then, some mausoleums in the Southern Dynasties also built tombs on the mountainside.This form makes the mausoleum more magnificent, far better than accumulating soil as a tomb, so it was widely used in mausoleums in the Tang Dynasty.14 of the 18 mausoleums in Guanzhong adopt this form. The emperors of all dynasties built large tombs for themselves.The tomb of the Shang King's Mausoleum is a huge square or rectangular vertical pit.Some of the tomb chambers have a tomb passage on each side, and the plane is sub-shaped.Some have a tomb passage on the north and south sides, and the plane is in the shape of a Chinese character.During the Zhou Dynasty and the early Western Han Dynasty, the tombs of the tombs of the princes and kings still maintained the shape since the Shang Dynasty.In the tombs of the Warring States Period, sand, stones, and charcoal were often filled inside the tomb to prevent moisture and protect the tomb.The tomb chambers of the mausoleums of the Han Dynasty are called Mingzhong, Fangxia or Xuangong, and the overall structure is grand and solid.There is a tomb passage in the center on all four sides, called Xiandao, and there is a Xianmen gate leading to the tomb.The opposite ground road is called Shinto.In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, wood was used to construct the coffin chamber, and the center of the coffin chamber was a wooden coffin.According to records, since the Zhou Dynasty, there have been strict regulations on the coffin system.The burial utensils of the emperor and princes are multiple coffins.The outer coffin chamber is stacked with yellow cypress wood with one end facing inward, which is called "Huangchang Ticou", and the interior is divided into corridors and so on. In the middle and late Western Han Dynasty, the structure of the tomb underwent major changes.Most of the tombs dug into mountains as mausoleums are horizontal caves, and are divided into ear chambers, front chambers and back chambers.The shaft-type tomb uses bricks and stones to construct the tomb chamber instead.The shape and structure completely imitate the houses, palaces and courtyards in real life.This structure of the tomb played the role of the coffin, so the burial utensils in the tomb are only the coffin but not the coffin.Then the etiquette system about coffins and inner and outer coffins was gradually abandoned since the Zhou Dynasty.The brick-structured tombs of the Han Dynasty have been excavated with relatively high specifications, and the chambers of the tombs are mostly painted with colorful murals or bricks with molded portraits.Most of the tombs with stone structures are carved with portraits.The themes of the paintings are extensive, except for gods, monsters, and historical stories, they mainly show various scenes of the life of the tomb owner during his lifetime.Based on this, it is speculated that the Xuan Palace in the emperor's mausoleum must be even more magnificent.After the Han Dynasty, brick and stone tombs or stacked tombs continued to be used, and their forms and structures continued to evolve and change.In the Tang Dynasty, the tomb of Prince Yide, whose tomb was called the mausoleum, had a tomb structure and plane layout that imitated the design of the imperial palace.During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the scale of Xuan Gong in the imperial mausoleum was even larger, and the materials used were more refined.The Ming Dingling Xuan Palace is composed of the front room, middle room, back room, ear room, corridor and other parts. It is completely modeled on the front court, back bedroom, side hall and palace gate of the palace, and has become a veritable underground palace. Husband and wife joint burials already existed in the Western Zhou Dynasty.Both the  [yuyu] Bo Tomb in Baoji, Shaanxi Province in the middle of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Weihou Tomb in Junxian County, Henan Province in the late Western Zhou Dynasty both found the phenomenon of "joint burials" of husband and wife, that is, the husband and wife were buried in two tombs close to each other.During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this system of joint burial in different caves became more common.Empresses of the Han Dynasty still adopted the method of joint burial at different points. "Historical Records A Family of Foreign Relatives" quotes "Guanzhong Ji": "The tombs of the Han emperors and empresses are buried together, and they are not in the same mausoleum." Except for Gaozu and Empress Lu who are in the same cemetery, all the mausoleums have been built by emperors and empresses. The practice of juxtaposing two tombs in the previous generation has been changed.Empresses of the Tang Dynasty were buried together in the imperial mausoleum instead of building a separate mausoleum.The Song Dynasty restored the regulations of the Han Dynasty, and the empresses and concubines built separate mausoleums on the back side of the imperial mausoleum. The shape and structure are the same as the imperial mausoleum, but the scale is smaller, and most of them have no mausoleum name.The Ming Dynasty adopted the Tang system, and the queens were buried together in the imperial mausoleum.In the Qing Dynasty, the system of joint burial of emperors and empresses was no longer very strict, some emperors and empresses shared the same mausoleum, and some emperors and empresses had different mausoleums.The Hou Mausoleum is relatively small, with the exception of Cixi's Dingdong Mausoleum, whose architectural scale and luxury far surpass that of Emperor Xianfeng's.There are garden dormitories for concubines near the imperial mausoleum, but the scale is lower than that of emperors and empresses. Due to the "thick burial" practiced by the rulers of successive dynasties in our country for thousands of years, a large number of wealth created by the working people was buried in the tomb as funerary objects.These funerary objects include ceremonial ritual objects, Ming objects, various daily necessities, and works of art. They are of various types and in huge quantities, especially those in the emperor's tombs are the most precious and abundant.After successive dynasties of destruction and excavation, most of these funerary objects have been lost or destroyed, and most of the remaining small parts have important historical, scientific and artistic values. Bronze wares are the most prominent among the funerary objects in the tombs of King Shang, whose size and craftsmanship are beyond the reach of later generations.Among them, the Simuwuding Ding is the largest bronze vessel ever discovered.During the two-week period, the burial objects in the tombs of princes and kings were still dominated by various bronze wares, including wine vessels, eating vessels, musical instruments, weapons, chariot and horse vessels, tools, etc., complete sets of equipment, and a complete range of categories.Among them, the tripod and gui (gui ghost) are the most important, and their number and combination are the symbols of the noble status at that time.The proportion of daily necessities such as lacquerware in the funeral objects of the Warring States Period increased significantly.The trend of thick burials in the Han Dynasty was unprecedentedly serious, and the types and numbers of burials in tombs increased dramatically.Among them, the number of bronze wares has decreased, and has lost the nature of "ceremonial vessels". Instead, they are mainly pearls, jade treasures and various practical utensils during life.Emperors and nobles were buried in jade clothes after death. Jade clothes were divided into gold, silver and copper according to their status. The emperor used gold. my country's silk industry developed very early, and it was known as the country of silk in ancient times. There are a lot of silk fabrics in the funerary objects. Unfortunately, because it is difficult to preserve, not many of them have been handed down.In archaeological excavations, silk and linen fabrics were unearthed during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and many types of silk fabrics were unearthed from the Warring States Tomb in Jiangling, Hubei.The types of silk fabrics unearthed from the tombs of the Han Dynasty are more complete, including plain weave silk and gauze, single-color flowered Qi and Luo, colored flowered brocade, as well as embroidery and printing.A plain yarn Zen robe unearthed from the Western Han Dynasty tomb in Mawangdui weighs less than 50 grams, which fully reflects the high level of textile technology at that time.A large number of silk fabrics, including a large number of brocades, were unearthed from Dingling in the Ming Dynasty, which are precious objects for studying the history of textiles. my country is the hometown of porcelain. The output of ancient porcelain and the fine craftsmanship rank first in the world.There is a huge amount of porcelain in the burial objects of the tombs of the past dynasties.From the original porcelain of the Shang Dynasty, the celadon of the Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the three-color porcelain of the Tang Dynasty, to various exquisite porcelains of the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, all have been unearthed in the mausoleum, which fully reflects the long history and superb craftsmanship of Chinese ceramics. In many mausoleums of the past dynasties, there are also brochures and documents made of gold, silver, jade, stone, bamboo, wood, and paper.During the Five Dynasties, when Wen Tao robbed the imperial mausoleum of the Tang Dynasty, he saw in the mausoleum of Emperor Taizong Zhaoling "all the books of the previous life, Zhong Wang's handwriting, paper and ink as new", and the authentic "Lanting Preface" written by the world-famous Eastern Jin Dynasty calligrapher Wang Xizhi was also buried. in the tomb.It is a pity that these precious documents have been destroyed.The crowns unearthed from Dingling in the Ming Dynasty are all woven with fine gold threads, and are extremely outstanding handicrafts.Empress Cixi of the Qing Dynasty buried all kinds of rare treasures, but most of them were lost due to robbery. In addition to burying a large number of objects, the emperor's tomb also uses living people to be buried and sacrificed, which are called "human sacrifice" and "human sacrifice".This cruel system of killing and martyrdom began in the Shang Dynasty.According to archaeological excavations, more than 160 people were killed in the tombs of emperors in the late Shang Dynasty.Among those killed were the tomb owner's attendants, guards, various servants, and other slaves. Killing and sacrificial burials were very common in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, and gradually decreased after the middle Western Zhou Dynasty, but still existed in large numbers in some noble tombs until the early Warring States period.After the middle period of the Warring States period, this kind of cruel killing was opposed by people, and the number of human sacrifices decreased, and wooden figurines and pottery figurines appeared instead of human sacrifices for burial.The Qin State abolished the system of human sacrifice when it dedicated itself to the public, but it did not actually disappear.After the death of Qin Shihuang, Qin II ordered the killing of the childless and the princes in the harem to be buried.Although human sacrifice as a system was terminated in the Han Dynasty, its remnants can still be reflected in the tombs of some emperors and nobles until the late feudal society.For example, before Yingzong of the Ming Dynasty, most of the concubines were buried and died. According to records, there were as many as 40 concubines buried in Xiaoling, Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty. In addition to human sacrifices, livestock are also used in the burial, among which horses and dogs are the most.Most of them are buried near the mausoleum, and another pit is set up.This system has almost become custom-made since the Western Zhou Dynasty, and it became more popular in the Warring States Period.There is a chariot and horse pit near each mausoleum, and its scale depends on the identity of the tomb owner.It is estimated that there were as many as 600 horses martyred in the Qi Cemetery in the ancient city of Linzi.Twelve chariots and 72 horses were buried in the largest chariot and horse pit in the tomb of Marquis Wei in Jun County.In the early Western Han Dynasty, chariots and horses were buried in tombs or tomb passages, and there was no longer a separate pit for chariots and horses, and the number was greatly reduced.After the late Western Han Dynasty, real chariots and horses were no longer used for burial, and wooden or pottery models of chariots and horses were generally used instead.According to literature records: In the imperial mausoleums of the Han Dynasty, birds and animals for entertainment were also buried.Rhinoceros and giant panda skeletons were unearthed in the burial pit of Empress Dowager Bo. The group of stone carvings set up in front of the mausoleum began around the Han Dynasty.There are roughly two functions, one is to express military exploits and achievements, and the other is to symbolize guards and guards of honor.There are a total of 16 stone carvings in front of Huo Qubing's tomb in the Maoling Tomb of the Han Dynasty.The purpose of setting up is mainly to commend Huo Qubing's military exploits.Inside the north gate of Emperor Taizong's Zhaoling Mausoleum, 14 stone statues of ethnic minority leaders are displayed, and six horses are displayed on the east and west sides of the gate, also to show Taizong's political and military talents and achievements. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, large stone figures and stone beasts were generally set up in front of the mausoleum in imitation of the court setting up guards, which had the functions of symbolizing auspiciousness, expelling ghosts and guarding.The type, quantity and size of the stone carvings are graded.In front of the Jingling Mausoleum of Emperor Xiaozhuang of the Northern Wei Dynasty, a stone man and a stone head were unearthed. The stone man holds a sword in both hands, which is obviously a guard warrior.The stone carvings standing on both sides of the Shinto in front of the mausoleum of the Southern Dynasties are a pair of stone beasts (unicorns), a pair of stone pillars, and a pair of stone tablets.Since the Qianling Mausoleum of Emperor Gaozong Wu Zetian in the Tang Dynasty, a large-scale stone carving guard of honor composed of ministers of civil and military affairs and rare birds and animals has basically formed a custom-made.On both sides of the South Gate Shinto, there are a pair of stone pillars, a pair of Pegasus, and a pair of ostriches, five pairs of stone horses and horsemen, ten pairs of stone figures, and a pair of stone steles.There are also stone statues of the leaders of ethnic minorities to show the martial arts and martial arts.After the Song Dynasty, the stone inscriptions on imperial mausoleums of successive dynasties basically followed the system of the Tang Dynasty, but there were some changes in the variety and quantity.For example, stone men are divided into civil servants and generals, and large animals and mythical beasts such as unicorns, elephants, and camels have been added. Most of the stone carvings in front of the mausoleum are carved from a huge stone.The techniques include line engraving, relief and round carving, most of which are vigorous in shape, delicate in technique and lifelike in shape, showing the long tradition of Chinese sculpture art.Among them, the stone carvings of Six Horses in Zhaoling Mausoleum of Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty can be regarded as a masterpiece of stone carving art in my country. The stele erected in front of the mausoleum probably began in the Eastern Han Dynasty.At that time, not only high-ranking officials and nobles were like this, but ordinary people also erected tombstones.It is known that the stone stele erected in front of the emperor's mausoleum was the earliest during the Southern and Northern Dynasties.A pair of steles are erected on the left and right of the Shinto in front of the mausoleum, with characters engraved in the middle of the stele.There are steles in front of the imperial tombs of the Tang Dynasty and many accompanying tombs.The most important surviving ones are the "Wordless Stele" and "Shengji Stele" on both sides of the northern side of Qianling Shinto. "Shushengji Stele" was written by Wu Zetian and Tang Zhongzong, and the content praised Gaozong's literary and martial arts.During the Northern Song Dynasty, no monument was erected in front of the mausoleum.The Ming Dynasty restored the system of erecting steles in front of the mausoleum of the Tang Dynasty. The difference was that the stele was erected at the southern end of the Shinto and a magnificent stele pavilion was built.The inscription was written by Emperor Si, and the calendar records the achievements of the first emperor in his life.The monument erected in front of the mausoleum of the Qing Dynasty basically followed the system of the Ming Dynasty. The tombs of people other than spouses and human martyrs who are buried near the imperial mausoleum can be collectively referred to as accompanying tombs.The nature of the accompanying tombs before the Han Dynasty was relatively complicated.According to the "Tang Dazhao Collection": "The princes were buried in a row, and Zhou Wenchuang Chen Qili." However, according to archaeological excavations, there were accompanying tombs in the Shang Dynasty.After the Western Zhou Dynasty, the funeral system was further developed.A small number of medium-sized and small tombs were discovered near the tombs of the Shang kings at the Yin Ruins in Anyang.There are also small and medium-sized tombs near the Mausoleum of Marquis Wei, King Zhao, King Wei, King Qin and the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang.These tombs are located near the royal mausoleum. They are not many in number and have a high status, so they belong to the accompanying tombs.The status of those buried with them is probably the servant of the monarch or the public family.Some of them may belong to the burial from the dead, and some may be buried in the same family. In the Western Han Dynasty, since the Changling Mausoleum of Emperor Gaozu, for political purposes, many accompanying tombs were placed in each mausoleum, called "accompanying tombs", forming a large-scale accompanying tomb.The cemetery is located in front of the imperial mausoleum and is neatly arranged.The largest number is Changling, with more than 60 existing mounds.Most of the burials were important court officials and relatives of the emperor at that time.According to records, some founding fathers such as Xiao He, Cao Can, and Zhang Liang were buried with Changling; famous generals such as Wei Qing and Huo Qubing were buried with Maoling.Most of the cemeteries of the burials were bestowed by the emperor, and each had a cemetery, garden and ancestral hall.Some also buried their children and grandchildren next to their father's tomb to form a clan cemetery.The higher the status of the burial, the closer to the emperor's mausoleum, and the higher the seal.From the analysis of the status and identities of the burial persons in the Western Han Dynasty, most of the tombs buried with the tombs of Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wu, and Emperor Xuan were important ministers and ministers of the imperial court.In the late Western Han Dynasty, those buried with the tombs of Yuan, Cheng, and Ai were either relatives, courtesans, concubines, or palace people.This situation reflects the political ups and downs and changes of the Han Dynasty from one aspect. The imperial mausoleums of the Tang and Song Dynasties followed the burial system of the Western Han Dynasty.Zaiji, Li Jing, Yuchi Jingde, etc. are all founding fathers and dignitaries.Among those buried with Xuanzong Tailing, the proportion of relatives of the emperor increased significantly.All those buried with Zhongzong's Dingling Mausoleum belonged to the relatives of the emperor.From the analysis of the position of the accompanying tombs in Zhaoling, they are arranged in the order of the time of burial.Influenced by the Han Dynasty, the accompanying tombs of the Tang Dynasty are all on the front side of the mausoleum.Most of the accompanying tombs in the Song Dynasty were on the back side of the imperial mausoleum, which is obviously related to the political situation where the imperial power was highly concentrated in the Song Dynasty.Influenced by the Tang and Song Dynasties, Xixia also implemented the accompanying burial system, and there are many accompanying tombs in the mausoleum area. After the Song Dynasty, the funeral system was abolished.Although some heroic officials such as Xu Da and Chang Yuchun were buried in Nanjing in the early Ming Dynasty, they were all buried in the shadow of Zijin Mountain, opposite to Xiaoling Mausoleum, and were not in the same mausoleum area, so they were not buried with them.Although there was a separate dormitory for concubines in the emperor's mausoleum area in the Qing Dynasty, it was a form of the joint burial system for emperors and empresses, which was different from the accompanying burial system. The mausoleums and mausoleum systems of successive emperors are closely related to the social conditions at that time. They not only reflect the ideological etiquette and customs, but also reflect the political, economic and cultural conditions of the society, which is an important topic of historical research.The mausoleum buildings and a large number of funerary objects, stone carvings and other cultural relics that have been preserved to this day are the crystallization of the blood, sweat and wisdom of the ancient working people, and they are the cultural treasures of the Chinese nation.Today, they are owned by the general public, and have become important physical materials for scientific research, image teaching materials for patriotic education, and objects and places for tourism and viewing.

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