Copper (Cu) is the first metal recognized and utilized by humans.There are natural pure copper blocks in nature, which are purple-red, so they are also called red copper.They are easy to attract people's attention. Therefore, as early as the Neolithic Age when humans used ground stone tools thousands of years ago, when people collected stones to make stone tools, they had discovered pure copper blocks and collected them. The method of making stone tools, hammering and grinding them into knives, small cones or small decorations, is the earliest bronze ware in human history.The earliest copper ware made of natural red copper found in the world is the copper needle and copper cone in the seven or eight thousand BC found in the Chayoni site in southern Turkey.

There are also copper ores in nature, and the common one is malachite, which is a copper oxide ore (CuCO·Cu(OH)). Because of its blue-green color, it resembles the feathers of a peacock, so it is loved by people. , from a very early time, people collected them to make necklaces and other decorations.Later, it was discovered that malachite accidentally dropped in a charcoal fire would melt into liquid copper at high temperature, and it could be formed freely when cooled and solidified.I don’t know how many times this phenomenon has happened. After a long period of time, in the late Neolithic Age, people finally invented the technology of using malachite and charcoal to smelt and cast red copper ware. Since then, red copper ware has generally appeared.Therefore, this period is also called the Chalcolithic Age, or the Chalcolithic Age.For example, during the Gersai culture period from 3500 BC to 3100 BC, there were smelted copper knives, daggers, axes and adzes in Egypt.In China, a red copper bell smelted and cast in about 2085 BC was unearthed from the tombs of the Longshan Cultural Site at Taosi, Xiangfen, Shanxi.

However, red copper has low hardness and is not suitable for making production tools, so it does not play a big role in production.Later, people discovered tin ore in long-term production practice, the common one is cassiterite, which is a kind of tin oxide ore (SnO); and learned the technology of smelting tin (Sn) by adding cassiterite and charcoal.On the basis of people's mastery of copper smelting and tin smelting, people further invented the technology of smelting red copper and tin into bronze alloys, and realized that bronze has greater advantages than red copper. Specifically, the superiority of bronze is its hardness.The hardness of red copper is 35 degrees of the Brin's hardness tester. Adding 5% tin will increase its hardness to 68 degrees; adding 10% tin will increase its hardness to 88 degrees.And after hammer forging, the hardness can be further improved.For example, bronze with 10% tin added has a hardness of 228 degrees after hammer forging.Secondly, the molten bronze has good fluidity, and the casting shrinkage rate is very small when it solidifies. Therefore, objects with sharp blades, clear outlines, and fine patterns can be cast.Third, the chemical properties of bronze are stable, corrosion-resistant, and can be used and preserved for a long time.In addition, the melting point of the bronze alloy is low, and after the bronze is worn out, it can be returned to the furnace for recasting.

Due to the above-mentioned advantages of bronze, it is suitable for making production tools, weapons and household appliances.Therefore, after the ancient people invented the bronze smelting technique, they widely used bronze to make various production tools, weapons and household utensils.However, once bronzes are widely used in production and life, major and profound changes have taken place in all aspects of production and life in human society.First of all, the highly developed bronze smelting and casting industry provided unprecedented sharp tools for agriculture and various other handicrafts, which greatly increased labor productivity, and the great development of agriculture and handicrafts also promoted the further division of labor between agriculture and handicrafts. The further division of labor within the handicraft industry has greatly improved the productivity of the entire society.Secondly, due to the development of productive forces, profound changes have taken place in social production relations and all aspects of social life, including political, military, cultural and other fields, which have greatly improved the entire appearance of society.That is to say, the widespread use of bronze ware has prompted a qualitative leap in the development of material and spiritual culture in human society, that is, from the Stone Age to a new era—the Bronze Age.

All in all, bronze is a kind of alloy mainly based on copper. Ancient bronzes are mainly alloys of copper and tin, in addition to alloys of copper and lead (Pb), alloys of copper and tin, and lead.It must be pointed out that the original color of bronze in ancient times was mostly golden yellow, so bronze (or copper) is called "gold" in ancient Chinese literature and in the bronze inscriptions of the Zhou Dynasty.It's just that after long-term corrosion, the surface of ancient bronzes often forms a layer of green rust, so today everyone calls it bronze. The Bronze Age is the era when humans used bronze to make major production tools, weapons and household appliances. It is the second era in the history of human material and cultural development after the Stone Age, and the first era in which humans used metals.In the Bronze Age, bronze wares played a dominant role in both production and all aspects of social life, playing a decisive role and being the most important cultural factor. Therefore, people call this era in human history the Bronze Age.

Judging from the current archaeological discoveries, all countries in the world have experienced the Bronze Age.Bronze wares appeared in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom era (2133 BC-1786 BC), and the bronze smelting and casting industry reached its peak in the New Kingdom era (1567 BC-1085 BC). Bronze was used to make production tools, chariots and temple gates. accessories etc.Bronze ware appeared in the period of the First Dynasty of Ur (about 2700 BC-2371 BC) in the southern part of the Mesopotamia, and became popular in the period of the Third Dynasty of Ur (about 2113 BC-2006 BC).The Bronze Age in the Indus Valley is the Harappan culture from 2350 BC to 1750 BC. Bronze wares include hoes, sickles, knives, axes, and swords.Moreover, Egypt, the Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley all entered the civilization period during the Bronze Age.

In ancient China, according to document records and archaeological discoveries, it entered the Bronze Age as early as the Xia Dynasty, the first slavery dynasty.There are legends about casting Jiuding in the Xia Dynasty in ancient documents, such as "Historical Records Fengchan Shu": "(Xia) Yu collected the gold (bronze) of Jiumu to cast Jiuding, and all of them tasted the gods and ghosts." After the founding of New China, During the archaeological excavation of the Xia culture, archaeologists discovered fragments of bronze vessels dating to 1900 BC (early Xia Dynasty) at the Wangchenggang site in Dengfeng, Henan, where the "Yudu Yangcheng" recorded in the literature is located.The residual height is 5 cm, the residual width is 5.5 cm, the thickness is 0.11-0.15 cm, and the weight is 35 grams. The surface has green and dark brown rust, which is arc-shaped, and the lower part has a turning point.According to metallographic and scanning electron microscope analysis conducted by the China Metallurgical History Research Office of Beijing University of Science and Technology, it is a bronze product containing 7% tin.At the same time, fragments of copper-smelting crucibles that had been used many times were found in the site of Meishan in Linru, Henan Province in the early Xia Dynasty.What is especially important is that archaeologists have discovered bronze tripods, jue, jia (jiajia), 盉 (hehe), Ge, Bells and other utensils, as well as the ruins of the bronze smelting workshop.The above archaeological discoveries strongly indicate that the Xia Dynasty has indeed entered the Bronze Age.At present, the academic community is conducting in-depth exploration and research on the origin of ancient Chinese bronzes.

Let me introduce what is bronze culture.Bronze culture mainly refers to the material culture created by people in the Bronze Age revealed through archaeological excavations and research work.This includes two major aspects. On the one hand, the relics of the Bronze Age mainly refer to bronze wares, in addition to pottery, porcelain, wood lacquer wares, jade wares, and stone wares.Another big aspect is the relics left by people's activities at that time, including houses, villages, city sites and tombs, etc.In addition to material culture, it also includes spiritual culture created by people at that time, such as writing and art.

Next, briefly introduce the smelting and casting process of ancient Chinese bronzes.According to archaeological discoveries and literature records, the manufacture of bronze wares in ancient China is mainly divided into two major technological processes: mining, smelting and casting.The first step is mining and smelting, that is, taking copper ore and tin ore respectively, and then adding charcoal to smelt red copper and tin respectively.Ancient China is rich in copper deposits. According to the "Guanzi·Dishu Pian" written at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period and the beginning of the Warring States Period: "The mountain of copper, four hundred and sixty-seven mountains,...there is a stone of kindness on the top, and copper and gold on the bottom; Those who have mausoleum stones have lead, tin and red copper." According to the records of "Zhou Li·Di Guan" in the Warring States Period, there were also "(mine)" people who managed the mine at that time.After the founding of New China, ruins of ancient copper mining and smelting were discovered in Tonglu Mountain in Daye, Hubei, Jiuqu Bay in Mayang, Hunan, Linxi, Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia, Tongling, Ruichang, Jiangxi, Nanling, Tongling, Anhui and other places.Now take the Tonglushan site in Daye, Hubei as a typical introduction.The Daye Tonglushan site is located three kilometers northwest of Daye County. The site is two kilometers long from north to south and one kilometer wide from east to west. It is rich in high-grade malachite copper deposits. Archaeological investigations and excavations have been started since 1973, and underground mining has been found. There are seven places in the district, and its time is mainly from the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States Period to the Han Dynasty.At that time, shafts and inclined shafts were excavated from the ground to reach the underground ore layer, and then horizontal and inclined roads were excavated for mining.The well lane is supported by a wooden frame, and the air pressure difference generated by the different elevations of the wellhead has been used to automatically ventilate, and the drainage system composed of a drainage tank, a water storage well and a wooden potter's wheel is used to drain water, and burning bamboo strips are used for lighting in the well. and other technologies fully demonstrate the ingenuity of the ancient Chinese people.Large copper ax-shaped chisels, copper adzes, wooden shovels, wooden mallets, wooden ladles, bamboo baskets and ropes were also found in the wells and alleys.Furthermore, at that time, the mined copper ore was smelted into red copper on the spot.More than 10 copper smelting shaft furnaces were found near the mine. Among them, the copper smelting furnace in the Spring and Autumn Period is 2.7 meters high, in the shape of a waist drum, and has a maximum diameter of 1.6 meters. It was rammed with a mixture of red clay, kaolin and quartz sand.The upper part of the hearth is equipped with a golden gate and a tuyere for slag discharge and copper discharge, and a ventilation ditch at the bottom (Figure 1).Through the simulation test, this furnace has been able to continuously feed materials and produce continuously, with a daily output of more than 300 kg of blister copper per furnace.400,000 tons of ancient copper smelting slag were found in the Tonglushan site, and it is estimated that 80,000 to 120,000 tons of copper were produced here, which is rare in the ancient world.

The second step is alloy casting.This is divided into three aspects: alloy, mold making and casting.First, the alloy.It is to mix copper and tin together in a certain proportion according to the needs of the utensils to be made, heat and melt them in a copper melting furnace, so as to obtain the required bronze melt, and then cast them.Regarding the proportion of bronze alloy preparation, the "Zhou Li·Kao Gong Ji" in the Warring States Period said: "Six points of gold (copper) and one of tin, which is called the Qi (agent) of Zhong Ding (that is, copper accounts for 85.7%, copper accounts for 85.7%, Tin accounted for 14.3%); five points were gold and tin accounted for one, which was called the balance of ax and catty (that is, copper accounted for 83.4% and tin accounted for 16.6%); That is, copper accounts for 80% and tin accounts for 20%); when the gold is divided into the first and the tin is the first, it is called a big edge (that is, the copper accounts for 75% and the tin accounts for 25%); the gold is divided into five and the tin is the second, which is called The cutting and killing arrows are the same (that is, copper accounts for 71.4%, tin accounts for 28.6%); gold and tin are half, which is called the agent of fire (that is, copper accounts for 66.7%, tin accounts for 33.3%)." Through today's analysis of ancient bronzes Laboratory analysis is basically consistent.For example, 47 bronze sacrificial vessels unearthed from the tomb of Fuhao in the late Shang Dynasty at the Yinxu in Anyang, Henan Province, were found to contain an average of 80.48% copper, 16.14% tin, and 0.89% lead.Another example is the Goujian sword of the Yue King unearthed in Jiangling, Hubei Province in the late Spring and Autumn Period. After testing, it contains 80.3% copper, 18.8% tin, and 0.4% lead.All of them are basically consistent with the records in the above-mentioned "Zhou Li · Kao Gong Ji".Moreover, it is also scientifically reasonable to analyze from the perspective of modern metallurgical theory.This is not only a scientific summary of the successful experience of ancient Chinese people in casting bronzes, but also the earliest documented record of alloy ratio in the world.It fully reflects the scientific level achieved by the ingenuity and smelting technology of the ancient Chinese people.

Second, standardize.It is the pottery model used to make bronze castings.Ancient Chinese bronze castings mainly use pottery molds, so it is called fan casting method, which is the characteristic of ancient Chinese bronze casting technology.Specifically, the first step is mold making, which is to use clay to make a model of the same size as the bronze ware to be cast, and to engrave patterns and inscriptions on it.Then the clay mold is dried in the shade, and then baked with fire to make it hard.The second step is to reproduce the outer model.That is to say, the mud pieces mixed with water and fine sand and finely crushed plant stems are stamped on the clay mold. After half-drying, according to the characteristics of the utensils, they are divided into several pieces with a knife and taken out. After drying in the shade, they are hardened and made into Outside model.The third step is to make the inner model.That is to say, the inner mold is made by subtracting the wall thickness of the bronze ware to be cast from the clay according to the shape of the clay mold, and the inscription is reversely engraved on the surface of the inner mold, and finally it is dried in the shade to harden.The fourth step is conformity.That is to say, the inner mold and outer mold that have been made above are assembled, and the outside is tied and fixed with ropes, and then wrapped with thick mud, and the channel for casting the bronze melt (commonly known as the gate) and the channel for discharging the air in the mold are left on it. (commonly known as riser).At this time, the cavity between the inner mold and the outer mold is the shape of the bronze to be cast, and then it can be cast (Figure 2). Third, casting.It is to inject the melted bronze alloy into the mold, and after the copper liquid is cooled and solidified, the outer mold and the inner mold are removed.And the cast bronzes were polished and trimmed.Bronze tools and weapons were hammered to further increase their hardness. Most importantly, the split casting method was invented in the Shang Dynasty and has been widely used.This makes casting bronzes easier, thereby improving production efficiency.And make the shape and decoration of utensils more complicated and magnificent.There are roughly two types of casting methods.One is to cast the accessories of the utensils first, such as the handle beams, the animal heads decorated on the surface of the utensils, etc., and then put them into the matching model of the utensil body.In this way, when casting the body, the accessories are cast together with the body.One is to cast the body first, and then put the accessories (such as ears, etc.) on the relevant parts of the body.Like this, when casting accessory, accessory has just been attached on the relevant position of device body.For example, the famous Houmuwu (Simuwu) tripod of the Shang Dynasty was made by first casting two tripod ears, inserting them into the body of the tripod, and then casting the tripod body to form a complete Houmuwu tripod.In the Spring and Autumn Period, the welding method was further invented.This is to weld the separately cast bronze body and accessories such as ears and feet with pewter [la wax] (tin-lead alloy).For example, the animal-shaped ears of the lotus-crane square pot unearthed in Xinzheng, Henan Province in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and the animal-shaped animal under the ring foot are all connected to the body by welding. In addition, the casting of ancient Chinese bronzes also used the lost wax method.For example, in 1978, in the tombs of Chu State during the Spring and Autumn Period at Xiasi Temple in Xichuan County, Henan Province, a bronze ban (the base supporting a group of bronze wine vessels) was unearthed. It is 28 cm high and 107 cm long.The flat body is hollow, and the forbidden surface is rectangular, surrounded by 12 vertically carved beasts, and there are 10 vertically carved animal feet below.The open-carved patterns around it are supported by multiple layers of disconnected copper stalks inside, which are exquisite and transparent.After research, it is impossible to manufacture it with the above-mentioned fan casting method, but it is cast with the lost wax method.The lost-wax method is to first apply a layer of insect wax (mixed with rosin and oil, etc.) on the outside of the inner mold made of clay, and use this layer of insect wax to make the original large model of the bronze ware to be cast, and to carve fine details on the wax. pattern.Secondly, use the adjusted fine mud to pour it layer by layer, and finally form a muddy outer model.Wrap it with thick mud outside the outer mold, and reserve a casting port and a wax outlet.Then heat and bake to melt the wax mold sandwiched between the inner and outer molds, and the wax liquid flows out from the wax outlet.Finally, the molten bronze is poured into the casting port. After cooling and solidifying, the outer mold and inner mold are removed, and a bronze ware is cast.Because insect wax is easy to carve, it can make utensils with layers of patterns and very complicated and magnificent.The discovery of the bronze ban at Xiasi Temple in Xichuan shows that China is one of the countries in the world that adopted the lost wax method for casting very early. Ancient Chinese bronze smelting and casting technology also includes superb surface decoration technology, such as inlaid turquoise, inlaid red copper, mixed gold and silver, gilt, chiseled (zanzan) carved patterns, lacquer painted patterns, etc., making it colorful and more decorative. colorful.In short, the highly developed ancient Chinese bronze smelting and casting technology is the technical basis of the splendid ancient Chinese bronze culture. Finally, briefly introduce the history of Shang and Zhou bronze culture discovery and research.Bronze wares from the Shang and Zhou dynasties have been unearthed sporadically in the Han and Tang dynasties, and were regarded as auspicious by feudal emperors.For example, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty discovered a bronze tripod in Fenshui, Shanxi in the seventh year of Yuanshou (116 BC), so Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty changed the year name to the first year of Yuanding ("Han Shu Wu Di Ji").In the Song Dynasty, with the further prosperity of feudal economy and culture, and the development of history, more and more ancient cultural relics such as Shang and Zhou bronzes were unearthed, and they were increasingly valued by feudal emperors and scholar-bureaucrats.One of the main research objects of epigraphy is Shang and Zhou bronzes and jades.Works describing the study of Shang and Zhou bronzes and jades appeared, such as Lu Dalin's "Archaeological Map" and Wang Fu (fu Fu)'s "Bogu Tulu".In the Qing Dynasty, due to the advocacy of the feudal emperors, epigraphy had a great development.Works such as "Xiqing Ancient Mirror", "Ningshou Jiangu", Ruan Yuan's "Jiguzhai Zhongding Yi Ware Inscriptions", Wu Dacheng [Cheng Cheng] "Ancient Jade Picture Research" and other works appeared.After the Revolution of 1911, the development of epigraphy reached its peak.Wang Guowei made great contributions to the study of Shang and Zhou bronzes and the history of Shang and Zhou.Rong Geng's "Tong Kao of Shang and Zhou Yi Ware" is a concluding work on the study of Shang and Zhou bronze wares by epigraphy. It is especially important that modern western field archeology was introduced to China in the early 20th century. In 1928, the archaeological group of the Institute of History and Language of the Academia Sinica began to conduct field archaeological excavations on the Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan, and discovered the palace and ancestral temples of the late Shang Dynasty, the tombs of the Shang kings, and unearthed the bronzes, jades and oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty for the first time through scientific excavation Wait.From then on, the scientific excavation and research work on Chinese Shang and Zhou bronze culture began, and the "Anyang Excavation Report" was published.At the same time, Guo Moruo first began to study Shang and Zhou bronze wares and Shang and Zhou society with Marxist viewpoints and methods, and published "Two Weeks of Jin Wenci Collection and Explanation", "Bronze Age" and so on. After 1949, with the full development of the country's economic construction, under the guidance of Marxist theory, after more than 40 years of archaeological excavation and research, the Marxist new Chinese archaeological system has been initially established.As a part of the entire Chinese archaeological system, the study of Shang and Zhou bronze culture has also made great achievements.Firstly, the ruins of capitals of the early and middle Shang Dynasty were discovered in Shixianggou and Zhengzhou City, Yanshi City, Henan Province, and the tombs of great aristocrats such as the Fuhao Tomb of the Yin Ruins were excavated.The ruins of Feng and Hao, the capitals of the Western Zhou Dynasty, were discovered on both sides of the Fenghe River in Chang'an, Shaanxi, and many bronze wares from the Western Zhou Dynasty were discovered in the Zhouyuan area of ​​Fufeng and Qishan.Secondly, in Luoyang of Henan, Zibo of Shandong, Yixian of Hebei, Handan of Hebei, Xi'an of Shanxi, Xinzheng of Henan, Jiangling of Hubei, Fengxiang of Shaanxi, etc., the Zhou, Qi, Yan, Zhao, Wei, Han, Chu, In the ruins of the capitals of Qin and other countries, the tomb of Caihou in Shouxian County, Anhui, the tomb of Marquis Yi Zeng in Suizhou, Hubei, and the ancient mining and metallurgy site of Tonglu Mountain in Daye, Hubei were unearthed, and precious cultural relics such as the chime bell of Marquis Yi Zeng were unearthed.Thirdly, bronze cultures in the surrounding areas during the Shang and Zhou dynasties were widely discovered in Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangxi, Guangdong and other provinces (regions), making the study of ancient Chinese bronze culture no longer possible. Confined to the Central Plains, a complete nationwide system has been formed.Fourth, in addition to publishing a large number of field archaeological excavation reports and briefings, the comprehensive research and special research on Shang and Zhou bronze culture have also achieved great results. ", "Shang and Zhou Archeology" by the Archeology Department of the History Department of Peking University, "General Theory of Yin and Zhou Bronze Ware" by Rong Geng and Zhang Weiwei, "Chinese Bronze Ware" edited by Ma Chengyuan, "New Bronze Ware Research" by Li Xueqin, "General Introduction to Chinese Bronze Ware ", "Complete Works of Chinese Art Bronze Ware" and "Yin Ruins Jade Ware", etc.