Chapter 7 Chapter 7 Chinese Papermaking in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia

China is located in the eastern part of the Asian continent. It is self-evident that paper and papermaking technology first spread to neighboring Asian countries.China and North Korea are connected by mountains and rivers, and have had close contacts and exchanges since ancient times.Chinese paper was introduced to the Korean peninsula from the end of the Han Dynasty to the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.At this time, it is equivalent to the Three Kingdoms era when the three regimes of Silla (57-935 AD), Goguryeo (427-668 AD) and Baekje (18-660 AD) were established there.Among them, Goguryeo borders China on land, and the northern culture of the Han and Wei Dynasties of China was introduced to Goguryeo from the mainland, and Goguryeo communicated with the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties, absorbing the civilization of the Yangtze River Basin.Baekje not only communicated with the Northern Dynasty, but also communicated with the Southern Dynasty.At that time, the "Five Classics and Three Histories" were the common reading materials in the intellectual circles of the peninsula, and Chinese characters were widely used, and Chinese paper books would naturally pour in.As early as the sixth year of Taikang in the Western Jin Dynasty (AD 285), Dr. Wang Ren of Baekje brought manuscripts of other books to Japan, so Goguryeo and Baekje must have obtained this manuscript before.We believe that papermaking on the Korean Peninsula can be traced back to the 4th to 6th centuries, that is, between the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. Hemp paper was mainly produced, but most of the paper was still obtained from China.After the Goryeo Dynasty (936-1392 AD) established by Wang Jian (877-943 A.D.) unified the peninsula, it maintained contacts with the Song Dynasty. At this time, the paper industry developed, and leather paper became a new paper type.The paper made in the Goryeo Dynasty was thick, strong and white, and was loved by the scholar-bureaucrats of the Song Dynasty.According to the volume of "Negative Xuan Yelu" written by Chen Ji from the Southern Song Dynasty, "Koreo paper is like the cold gold in Sichuan, solid and shiny." People in the Northern Song Dynasty like to use Goryeo paper as the backing paper for calligraphy and painting scrolls because of its firm texture.Literati also used it as a gift for friends, such as Han Ju (?—1135) said in a poem: "Wang Qing gave me three Hanji", which refers to Goryeo paper.Goryeo paper fans are large and have a large air volume. Su Shi and Deng Zhuang of the Song Dynasty all praised the Goryeo paper fans for their usefulness.In Yuan Dynasty, Xian Yushu's "Paper Notebook" listed Gaoli Manjian as one of the famous papers.In the Yuan Dynasty, the imperial court sent people to Koryo to purchase scripture paper for printing Buddhist scriptures.Another kind of dyed goose blue paper was also produced in Goryeo. Huang Tingjian (1045-1105 AD) and Jin Zhangzong Wanyanjing liked to write on this paper.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Li Chenggui overthrew Wang's Koryo, established the Li Dynasty (1392-1910 AD), changed the name of the country to Korea, and unified the peninsula again.The paper industry was further developed, mainly using mulberry and mulberry as raw materials to produce leather paper, and a small amount of bamboo paper was produced during Sejong's reign (1418-1450 AD).Li Dynasty vellum paper has various colored paper and hair paper, and China still calls it Koryo paper according to the past habit.Shen Defu of the Ming Dynasty said in "Feifu Yulue": "Today, the paper used at home and abroad is recommended as the first in Koryo tribute paper. It is thicker than five baht, and it is as white as fat jade. Every time it is uncovered, it is two, and it can be used. This is also known as "mirror paper", suitable for writing, but not suitable for painting, it seems to be raw paper.Dong Qichang (1555-1636 A.D.), Huang Gongwang (1260-1354 A.D.) and other famous artists like to write on Korean mirror paper.Some of Dong Qichang's calligraphy and painting works in the Forbidden City use this paper.This kind of paper is also widely used in printing books and Buddhist scriptures.Goryeo paper is characterized by its thickness (0.25mm-0.5mm), which is twice as thick as Chinese paper.These characteristics have been gradually formed since the Three Kingdoms era, and in the final analysis are the legacy of hemp paper in northern China during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.There is little bamboo in the Korean peninsula, and bamboo paper has not been developed, mainly leather paper.Its manufacturing technology obviously follows Chinese technology and equipment.But sometimes it is slightly different. For example, the green skin of the leather is peeled off one by one. Paper, Korean paper makes us recognize it at a glance, but it is different from Chinese paper.The Goryeo paper is of the same technical type as the northern hemp paper in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and it was mixed with the vellum paper technology after the Tang Dynasty, and finally finalized according to the specific situation.

China is adjacent to Vietnam on land. Since the Han Dynasty, some areas in Vietnam have been ruled by Chinese feudal dynasties for thousands of years. Chinese characters are commonly read, the Four Books and Five Classics are studied, and there are imperial examinations. Chinese paper and scrolls have been introduced here in the 2nd century.During the social turmoil at the end of the Han Dynasty, a large number of Chinese came to Vietnam for refuge, bringing with them the culture and production technology of the Central Plains.Papermaking was possible in northern Vietnam at the latest in the 3rd century.Lu Ji, a native of Wu (222-280 A.D.), said in "Mao Poetry Vegetation, Trees, Birds, Animals, Insects and Fishes": "Jing, Yang, Jiao, and Guang are called grains... Today, people in Jiangnan use their skins as cloth, and (扌shou ) is considered paper, so it is called vellum paper.” Jiaozhou is in the territory of Vietnam, and mulberry paper has been produced in the 3rd century.In his book "Southern Vegetation and Trees", Jin Jihan said that in the fifth year of Taikang (284 A.D.), the people of Daqin (Eastern Rome) offered 30,000 pieces of honey incense paper to Emperor Wu of Jin Dynasty, and the emperor gave 10,000 pieces of paper to Zhennan General Du In advance, he was ordered to write "Spring and Autumn Annals" and "Jing Zhuan Ji Jie". The fourth volume of "Book of Jin" also contains "Linyi and Daqin each sent envoys to present (paper)" in the fifth year of Taikang.Linyi is Champa or Champa in central Vietnam. The honey incense paper is made of honey incense tree, which is a Daphneaceae honey incense tree that grows in Vietnam.German sinologist Friedrich Hirth (1845-1927 A.D.) wrote in his book China and the Roman Orient (1885) that in 284 A.D. the Eastern Romans came to China for trade in Guangdong and bought them when passing through Vietnam. The sunken incense vellum was used as a national product to pay tribute to the Chinese court, just like the Eastern Romans bought ivory, rhino horn, and tortoiseshell from Vietnam in the ninth year of Yanxi in the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 166) and presented them to the Chinese court.This judgment is correct.It can be seen that in the 3rd century, not only the mulberry paper was produced in northern Vietnam, but also the Daphne vellum paper was produced in the central part.But the latter kind of paper does not have a fragrance, because the fragrance has been removed during the papermaking process, unless the fragrance is re-added to the pulp.

Papermaking in northern Vietnam was earlier, and paper in the south was imported from the north.After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, papermaking in the south gradually developed.The second volume of "Annan Zhiyuan" by Gao Xiongzheng of the Ming Dynasty states that during the Chen Dynasty (1225-1398 A.D.), Yizong sent envoys to send Vietnamese paper fans to Ming Taizu, and they were very popular. For more than ten years after 1407, Vietnam sent tens of thousands of paper fans to the Ming court every year.According to volume 1 of "Vietnam Chronicles" by Li Qiang〔ze维〕the Vietnamese, in 1730, Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty donated books, satin, silk, jewelry and jade to Vietnam, and the Vietnamese side gave back 200 pieces of golden dragon yellow paper and two stone inkstones. Wait. After the 13th century, Vietnam introduced printing technology from China, began to print books on paper, and issued banknotes.According to Wu Shilian's "Dayue Shiji·Chen Ji", in the summer and April of 1396, the Chen Dynasty issued Tongbao banknotes.Books printed in Vietnam are all written in Chinese and Nom. The layout and fonts are similar to those in China. Most of the books in the late period were printed on bamboo paper, because bamboo is abundant there.However, the research on the history of Vietnam's papermaking technology is still insufficient historical materials, and most of the physical remains are from the 18th to 19th centuries.Judging from the situation of handmade paper in modern Vietnam, the equipment and methods used are the same as those in China. Vietnamese paper is also similar to Chinese paper, but slightly different from Korean paper and Japanese paper.

Japan, which is a strip of water to the east of China, also has a thousand-year history of papermaking, and its "washi" is one of the famous traditional crafts.Even today, when machine-made paper is highly developed, hand-zuki washi is still loved by calligraphers and painters, and it is widely used in daily life.Japan has a wealth of paper records and physical remains of past dynasties, and Japanese scholars are particularly diligent in studying the history of paper.According to the "Nihon Shoki" records, the Baekje people brought Chinese scrolls to Japan in 285 AD, and in 610 AD the King of Koryo sent the eminent monk Tan Tan to Japan.Tan Zheng (579-631 A.D.) knew the Five Classics and was able to make paper and ink.In the past, historians believed that Japanese papermaking began in 610 AD, and Chinese papermaking technology was obtained through Korean media.However, Professor Machida Makoto, an expert on the history of washi paper, believes that Japanese papermaking may be earlier than this era, and his opinion is quite reasonable.

In fact, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China had frequent direct contacts with Japan. During the Sui Dynasty, a large number of Japanese envoys and learned monks came to China, and the Chinese also traveled east to Japan. It is possible that papermaking technology was introduced from China during this process.Japanese Asuka period (AD 592-714), Nara period (AD 715-805), Taiho period (AD 701-703), Tianping period (AD 729-748) document paper in Horyuji Temple and Todaiji Temple, The raw materials are mostly linen, mulberry skin and wild goose skin.Ganpi papermaking began in the Nara period.The technology of making hemp paper and chu paper in Japan is consistent with that of the Tang Dynasty. "Yanxi Shi" records that there was a library in the palace in the Heian period, "holding scriptures and books, compiling national history", and there were more decorative palms to decorate scriptures and dye paper, which is also consistent with the compilation in the palace of the Tang Dynasty.The "Ling Yi Jie", written in the Heian period, is even called "every day when papermaking is a long-term success, one catty and three taels of cloth are cut, two pounded are two taels, and one hundred and ninety sheets of paper are made." "Changgong" is a skilled paper worker, and it is estimated that the paper copied at this time was small.He also said: "Changgong boiled grain skin three catties and five taels, choose one catty and ten taels, cut three catties and five taels, pound ten liang, and make one hundred and ninety-six sheets of paper." Japan is one of the important raw materials for washi paper.

In the Heian period, mulberry paper, Fei paper, hemp paper and sandalwood paper were made in Ise (now Mie County), Owari (now Aichi County), Mikawa (now Aichi County), Echizen (now Fukui County) and other places. There is an official bureau paper house courtyard.Ancient novels mentioned batik paper, blue origami, purple paper, red paper, walnut colored paper and jiao paper and other processed papers.At the same time, various Chinese papers and scrolls gradually flowed into Japan. There is a large amount of Tang Dynasty paper in Nara Shosoin, among which is thinner hemp paper, which is believed to have been made in southern China.

Japanese paper also flowed into China and was well received. "New Book of Tang·Japanese Biography" records that in the first year of Emperor Dezong's Jianzhong (AD 780), the Japanese envoy Zhenren was able to offer all kinds of things and was good at calligraphy. The fiber of the mulberry paper used was as thin as a cocoon , the surface is smooth.Luo Jun of the Song Dynasty said in "Baoqing Siming Zhi": "Japan is the country of Japan, located (located) in the extreme east. It has been produced recently. It is good at making five-color paper, which China can't catch." Twenty-two mentions that Japan produces pine paper.However, Song Yingxing's "Tiangong Kaiwu" said that there are people in Japan who do not use curtains in papermaking, which may be due to misunderstanding. In fact, all papermaking in Japan uses bamboo curtains.

After the Kamakura period (1190-1335 A.D.), hemp paper became less and less, and leather paper became the main type of paper, and the output of chu leather paper was the largest.In Shoso-in documents, there is also paper made from a mixture of mulberry skin and wild goose skin.During the Edo period (AD 1603-1868), hand-rolled washi paper reached its heyday. In addition to various raw materials in the past, Samsuma bark was also widely used in papermaking.Japanese printing technology also developed very early. The famous "Millions of Tadharani" is a Buddhist scripture printed in the first year of Baogui (770 AD).Among Asian countries, in terms of the number of existing printed ancient books, apart from China, Japan is the number one country.Most of the printed and printed editions are written in Chinese or reprinted from Chinese books, and some are also written in Japanese.Japanese washi paper is characterized by thick and white paper, even and fine fibers, all of which are meticulously crafted, and has evolved into a unique style over a long period of time. Today, washi paper culture is valued and protected by the entire Japanese society and is regarded as an intangible cultural property.

Chinese paper and papermaking techniques have been spread southwards to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Philippines and Indonesia.Papermaking in these countries was later than that of North Korea, Japan and Vietnam, countries in the cultural circle of Chinese characters.Tang Dynasty Buddhist scholar Xuanzang (600-664 A.D.) visited India and recorded in Volume 11 of "Da Tang Western Regions" that there are more than 30 miles of woods in southern India, and he took the leaves to write. This is the Beiye Sutra. .Doro or Bedoro is derived from the Sanskrit word pattra or patra, the original meaning is leaves, that is, the leaves of the palm family fan coconut tree.It can be seen that there was no paper when Xuanzang traveled to India.Bayeux were also used as writing materials in ancient Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Thailand.When Chinese papermaking was introduced, it caused a revolution in writing materials.

When and how papermaking was introduced to India remains to be further studied.Some people say that India invented papermaking in 300 BC, which is obviously groundless.If there was paper that long ago, why is it still written with backward Bayeux after thousands of years. After the Tang Dynasty, Sino-Indian transportation and cultural exchanges had new developments. Indians who came to China had the opportunity to touch paper, and Chinese who went to India also brought paper and scrolls.Therefore, after the 7th century, the word "paper" began to appear in India. Sanskrit is kakali or kakari, and modern Hindi is kagad, which has the same etymology as Persian kagaz and Arabic ka-gad. The sound of "paper".This also shows that in addition to the Chinese, there were Central Asians, Persians and West Asian Arabs who brought paper to India.The appearance of Sanskrit paper characters also indicates that there may have been paper in India in the 7th century, but it is hard to say whether it was produced abroad or copied locally.Yijing (AD 635-713), a Chinese eminent monk who went to India later than Xuanzang, mentioned in Volume 2 of "The Biography of Returning from the South China Sea": "Old paper must be used, and it can be discarded in the toilet. After washing, it can be washed with the right hand Pull his clothes." Juan 4 also says, "Making mud to make bottoms and mold clay statues, or printing silk paper to make offerings everywhere."It can be seen that Yijing already had paper when he was in India. Paper volumes written in Sanskrit have been unearthed since the 20th century in Dunhuang, Gansu, and Hotan, Xinjiang, along the Silk Road in Northwest China, and they are no later than the 9th and 10th centuries, indicating that there are Indian footprints in this area.There were more and more paper manuscripts in India in the 11th and 12th centuries, which coincided with the early days of the Sultanate of Delhi (AD 1206-1526). At this time, the relationship between China and India was closer than before, and gunpowder was also introduced to India at this time. of.Since then, paper factories have been set up in the north and northwest, and paper mills have been established in the south.The way papermaking was introduced to India may have been the overland trade route, from present-day Xinjiang through Kashmir to northwestern India, or southward from the Himalayas in Tibet.The earliest surviving paper manuscripts in India date from 1231 and 1241, so there must have been some paper workshops in the 12th and 13th centuries.Of course, papermaking was introduced to India earlier than this, but not earlier than the 8th and 9th centuries. The time when papermaking was introduced to Nepal, Pakistan, and Bangladesh was roughly similar to the time when it was introduced to India.The Nepalese make paper from the bark of Daphneaceae, and use textured paper molds to draw paper, which is similar to papermaking in Tibet, and Tibet already had a papermaking industry in the 7th century.Bengal papermaking may be later than Nepal and Pakistan, but Bengal vellum was already famous in the 14th century. In 1400, Ma Huan, who traveled to the West with Zheng He, said in "Yingya Shenglan" that the Bengali leather paper is white, smooth and delicate like buckskin, indicating that the paper is thicker.Myanmar and Thailand made paper later than Bangladesh.Papermaking was also spread to Indonesia by sea in the Song Dynasty.According to the "Negative Xuan Yelu" written by Chen Yu from the Southern Song Dynasty, Japa [she snake] produced paper, and Japa is now the main island of Indonesia, Java (Java).

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