Chapter 4 Section 3 Islam in the Yuan Dynasty

After the victory of the Mongolian nobles in the western expedition, the main force moved eastward and southward, and wiped out the Southern Song Dynasty in the 16th year of Zhiyuan (AD 1279).In the battle against the Southern Song Dynasty, the Mongolian nobles continued to transfer troops from Central Asia.Among the Mongolian troops coming from the east, there were a large number of Arabs and Persians and other Central Asians who believed in Islam.Among them are mainly soldiers and craftsmen, but also merchants and social elites.These people were collectively called "Huihui" at that time, and belonged to the category of "Semuren".Returning soldiers are an important component of the "Exploring the Horse Red Army".With the conquest of the whole of China by the Mongolian nobles, these Muslims were scattered in the east, west, north and south, especially in the northwest, southwest, central plains, and south of the Yangtze River.Therefore, "History of the Ming Dynasty" said: "Return to the world in the Yuan Dynasty." After the smoke of the war was extinguished, most of them retired and became ordinary farmers, living together and carrying out land reclamation.This is the so-called "Mintun".There is also "juntun", which means that the army is guarding and cultivating at the same time.In addition, Hui craftsmen also mostly carried out handicraft production in military establishments.This is the historical root cause of the situation of "great dispersion and small concentration" in the future.If the distribution of Chinese Muslims in the Tang and Song dynasties was just isolated points, then in the Yuan Dynasty, the distribution of Chinese Muslims was not only connected into a line, but also paved into a surface.In Yunnan Province, there were already "thousands and tens of thousands" of Muslims in Yuan Dynasty.From the end of the Yuan Dynasty to the Shun period (1330-1333 A.D.), there were 3,845 households in Zhenjiang, including 3,672 Han households, 29 Mongolian households, and 59 Huihui households; a total of 10,555 households, including 9,407 Han Chinese and 163 Mongolian households. 374 people returned.Regardless of the number of households or the population, the Hui Hui ranks first among the non-Han ethnic groups, higher than the Mongolian ethnic groups.

During the Tang and Song dynasties, most Muslims in China lived in cities, and their economic activities were mainly limited to domestic and overseas commercial trade.In the Yuan Dynasty, a historic change took place.Muslims exist not only in cities, but also in rural areas, and the latter are the main ones.They are not only engaged in commercial trade, but also engaged in agricultural production and handicrafts, and the latter is the main one.This laid the economic foundation for the formation of the Hui nationality later.Except for those who are officials, no matter in the countryside or in the city, they mainly live in clusters.This way of living together is very beneficial to the consolidation and development of Islam, and it also promotes the formation of Muslim society.

Central Asians who believed in Islam, such as Arabs and Persians who came from the east in the Yuan Dynasty, were the backbone of the later Hui people. During the Yuan Dynasty, the Islamic countries in the west of China were also under the rule of the Mongols, and the western border of China was actually open; at the same time, the "Semu people" belonged to the ruling class in China. This situation undoubtedly contributed to the rapid development of Islam to the east. Convenient conditions are provided. In order to facilitate the management of the rapidly developing Islamic religious affairs, the Yuan Dynasty set up the official office of "Huihui Zhangjiaoha's Office".

Most of the founding khans of Mongolia implemented a policy of religious tolerance.People are free to practice their original religion.All religions are equal.However, each khan had his own preferred religion.It is said that Wo Kuotai Khan prefers Islam, and one of his queen's female officials is a Muslim.Kublai Khan, Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, respected Buddhism under the instigation of Empress Chabi Ketun.Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism) in the Yuan Dynasty was the state religion.Once, when discussing the gains and losses of various religions, Kublai Khan compared Buddhism to the palm of his hand, and Taoism, Confucianism, Christianity, and Islam to fingers.After the Ahema incident in 1282, he showed a tendency to "repress Hui".During Yingzong's time, he advocated Buddhism more and discriminated against Islam. In May of the first year of Zhizhi (1321 AD), he destroyed the mosque in Shangdu (located in Zhenglan Banner, Inner Mongolia today) and rebuilt the Basiba Dishi Hall.After Emperor Taiding succeeded to the throne, he balanced various religions and won over Muslims.The prime minister, Dao Lasha, and Pingzhang, the political affairs of Bodu Ullah, are all Muslims.In the first year of Emperor Taiding (1324 A.D.), 40,000 ingots of silver were allocated from the treasury to rebuild Shangdu and Datong Road Mosques.

"Huhui Zhangjiao Ha's Institute" is a central authority. "Ha's" is an Arabic transliteration, meaning the executive officer of the Islamic law.It is estimated that there should be its subordinate institutions in the local provinces.In Chinese history, this is the first time that a national Islamic management agency has been set up. The person in charge of the "Huihui Zhangjiao Ha De Institute" is called "Ha De", or "Master Hui Hui", who is in charge of missions, teaching methods and other matters.This official office was probably first established in the early Yuan Dynasty, and was abolished for the first time in the fourth year of Zhida (AD 1311).That is to say, the central management agency of Islam was abolished in that year, and local Kazakhs could perform their duties on their own, and there was no longer affiliation between top and bottom.In the second year, the first year of Huangqing (AD 1312), the emperor of the Yuan Dynasty issued an imperial decree, clearly stipulating the responsibilities of the Muslims and Kazakhs in various places. Big and small official affairs "all belong to Yousi", and Kazakhs are not allowed to intervene.It can also be seen from it that during Huihui's existence in charge of teaching Ha, Huihui's household marriage, money and food, litigation and other matters, if not Ha Hui's supervisor, at least they have to intervene.Since then, Ha's basic authority has been officially approved only to "teach and recite scriptures".The place where Hui Hui taught Ha was restored during the four years of Emperor Taiding's reign (1324-1328 A.D.).After Wenzong succeeded to the throne, he was abolished again in the first year of Tianli (1328 AD).The institution does not appear to have recovered since.After the revocation of the Kazakh Institute, Kazakhstan and Islamic affairs are likely to be placed under the management of the Xuanzheng Yuan.The Xuanzhengyuan was the central agency set up by the Yuan Dynasty to manage Buddhism and Tubo affairs.In some places, such as Hezhou (now Linxia, ​​Gansu), there are its subordinate institutions.We can see that some of the legal provisions promulgated by the Xuanzheng Yuan involve Islam.

In addition to Kazakhstan's teaching system, the "three teaching system" of Chinese Islam also began in the Yuan Dynasty.Its specific functions will be introduced later. There is no fixed name for Islam in the Yuan Dynasty.There are those who call it "true religion", and there are those who call it "puritanism". The term "Hui Islam" or "Islam" may have been very popular in the late Yuan Dynasty.However, Muslims in the Yuan Dynasty were already called "Huihui".If subdivided in "Hui", there are also titles such as "Da Shi Man", "Die Li Wei Shi", "Mu Su Lu Man" (or "Mu Su Man") and so on. "Ashi Man" is a class of religious scholars, including religious professionals. "Die Li Wei Shi" is a Sufi dervish. "Musu Luman" (the Mongolian vernacular in the Yuan Dynasty is often written as "Musu Luman Huihuimei") refers to the majority of Muslims.All three appellations are dialects of Persian.

There is a lack of direct historical data on the proportion of religious scholars and religious professionals among Muslims in the Yuan Dynasty.Especially the situation in the whole country, it is even more difficult to speak hastily.However, there are some indirect records in the local chronicles at the end of the Yuan Dynasty.Although there is suspicion of a glimpse, there are always some problems that can be clarified.At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, there were 24 taxpayers in Ningbo Huihui Keding, and 48 taels of silver were paid.Among them, 19 ordinary Muslim households received 37.2 taels of silver, two religious professional households received 4.8 taels of silver, and three ordinary religious households acted as government interpreters (translating Arabic) received 6 taels of silver.The ratio of religious professional households to general religious households is 1:11, that is, every 11 religious households has a religious professional household.Ordinary Christian households receive 1.96 taels of silver per household, which is less than two taels.Religious professional households pay 2.4 taels of silver per household, which is higher than that of ordinary religious households.Interpreter households receive two taels of silver per household, which is higher than that of ordinary religious households, but lower than that of religious professional households.

It is a very important new phenomenon that in the Yuan Dynasty Chinese Islam had specialized teaching personnel.It was transplanted by the Mongolian aristocrats who invaded south after the westward conquest: these Dashiman, Hadi, Hui master, Dieliweishi, etc., almost all came to China from the east with the Mongolian army.They originally had the status they have now in the Arab region or Central Asia where they lived. In the early Mongol and Yuan Dynasties, the development path of Islam in China was somewhat distorted.Different from the Tang and Song Dynasties, it has the possibility of being included in the Islamic cultural circle.But after Kublai Khan promoted Buddhism, this possibility was greatly reduced.In the Yuan Dynasty, and only in the Yuan Dynasty, did the religious profession truly appear in Chinese Islam.

Members of society in the Yuan Dynasty were divided into four classes, namely Mongolians, Semu people, Han people and Nan people.Muslims are one of the main constituents of the Semu people, their status is second only to the Mongols, and they belong to the ruling class.Politically, Muslims were the objects of the Mongolian nobles, and there were quite a few officials, and some even served as prime ministers.Economically, domestic and foreign trade and "handicrafts" are mostly monopolized by Muslims.The central and local provinces of the Yuan Dynasty had officials specially set up for Muslims, which were purely human-made.In the Yuan Dynasty, 17 Muslims served as prime ministers in the central government; 32 Muslims held important positions in local governments.In terms of judiciary, shamanism, and imperial examinations, Muslims enjoy higher rights than Hans and Nans.Answer: The barbarian class once enjoyed the special treatment of exemption from taxes, duties, and labor.This kind of treatment seems to have been enjoyed by ordinary returnees in some places.

However, the social status of Muslims declined in the late Yuan Dynasty. In the native land of the Yuan Dynasty, from the beginning of the ancestor Kublai Khan until the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Buddhism has been respected.And some khanates, due to the influence of Islamic culture, gradually became Islamic. Ananda is the grandson of Kublai Khan and the son of Mangolah. In the seventeenth year of the Yuan Dynasty (1280 A.D.), he secretly attacked the "King Anxi" and was based in Xi'an.In the eleventh year of Dade (1307 A.D.), he was punished for failing to fight for the throne.Ananda was taught Muslims when he was young, so he liked this religion very much.As an adult, he converted to Islam.He can recite silently and write beautiful Arabic characters.Driven and encouraged by Ananda, most of the 150,000 troops under his command converted to Islam.This was an important event in the history of the development of Islam in the Yuan Dynasty.

In the Chagatai Khanate, Chagatai's great-grandson Bala also converted to Islam during his reign, in the second year of Zhiyuan (AD 1265).It is said that in the seventh year of Yanyou (1320 A.D.), when Qibie succeeded to the throne, the khanate officially embarked on the road to Islam. In China, even in the Yuan Dynasty, Muslims had to learn traditional culture.This is especially the case in the Mainland.On the one hand, Chinese Muslims must accept the education of traditional culture.Regardless of their subjective wishes, whether they are active or passive, they must do so.On the other hand, for Chinese Muslims, the imperial examination is also an irreplaceable way out of life.From the participation of Muslims in the imperial examination, we can see how profoundly traditional culture has had a profound impact on Islam. In the Yuan Dynasty, there was Huihui Guozi School, which was the highest school in the country and was affiliated with Guozijian.It was established in the twenty-sixth year of Zhiyuan (AD 1289).In the first year of Yanyou (1314 A.D.), Huihui Guozijian was set up.All the children of Mongolian, Semu and Han officials can enroll.The learning content is "Four Books", "Five Classics", poems and prose, charts, imperial edicts, etc.In addition, there are foreign language courses, such as Persian, Arabic and so on.There is a kind of writing, "Yuanshi" called "Yisi for non-writing", some people think that Yisi for non or Persian.The school system (management rules, teaching methods, etc.) "all follow the Han people's enrollment system and learn it every day" ("Yuan Shi·Electoral Records").During the reign of Emperor Taiding (1324-1328 A.D.), Huihui Guozixue had a large number of students.Most of the graduates who returned to Guozixue worked as translators in various central yamen. The school examinations in the Yuan Dynasty, regardless of the Mongols, were all the content of traditional Chinese culture.In the second year of Yanyou (1315 A.D.), Emperor Renzong of the Yuan Dynasty approved according to the discussion of Zhao Mengfu (fu ax), a scholar of Jixian, and Yuan Mingshan, the Minister of Rites, that the method of studying the tribute examination for Guozi was changed to "Shengzhai", and its rank was Liuzhai.The so-called "Liu Zhai" refers to six gradual learning stages, similar to the different stages of elementary school, junior high school, and high school.The next two fastings are "Yuyi" and "Yiren", and "everyone who recites books and talks about elementary school belongs to the right Li Yan".Zhongliangzhai is "according to morality" and "zhidao", and "liyan who talks about the "four books" class and poetry law".The Shangliangzhai are "Shi Xi" and "Ri Xin", "the one who talks about "Yi", "Poetry", "Spring and Autumn" and learns the Ming scriptures and other Cheng Wen".Examinations are conducted quarterly, and those who pass the coursework of the classics they have studied can be upgraded in turn.Han people only need to complete the "Rixin" or "Shixi" fasting courses before they can make tributes, while Mongolian people and Semu people only need to read "Zhi Dao" and "Jude" fasting courses to make tributes.This rule is called "private test".The private examination lasted for several months. The Han students successively tried one of the classics and doubts, one of the classics and righteousness, and one of the policy questions and regulations; the Mongolian students and the Semu students successively tried one of the Mingjing and one of the policy questions.The school's teaching content for Mongolian students, Semu students and Han students is exactly the same, but the requirements are different.This is "the method of testing Mongolian students should be lenient, the color and eyes should be slightly denser, and the system of Han students should be general" ("Yuan History · Election Records"). In the Yuan Dynasty, some Muslims, especially the upper class, were both bureaucrats and Confucian scholars.They are proficient in Ci and Zhang, and they are profound in Neo Confucianism.This cannot but be said to have a lot to do with the education system mentioned above. In China's feudal society, obtaining a scholar opened a small door for the advancement of knowledgeable and cultural people.A large number of students are crowded on the narrow stairs of the "imperial examination", even though they have spent their entire lives and missed the door of fame and fame, they will not hesitate.Students are to the imperial examinations as iron is to magnetism, and its attraction is difficult to describe in words.Because once you are ranked, you will gain both fame and fortune.In the book, there are Qian Zhongsu, Golden House and Yan Ruyu.The imperial examination required the study of Confucianism.In this regard, the teachings of Islam are powerless, and it is commonly said that "you can't help but return from Confucianism". During the Yuan Dynasty, Wo Kuotai and Kublai Khan both planned to use the imperial examination to select scholars, but they failed to implement it.The Yuan Dynasty opened its first department in the early years of Yanyou (1314 A.D.).There are two exams in Mongolia and Semuren. The first exam asks five questions, from "University", "Mencius" and "The Doctrine of the Mean", with Zhu Xi's chapters and sentences;Three exams for Han people and southerners. The first exam examines two questions about Mingjing Jingjing, from "Great Learning", "Mencius", and "The Doctrine of the Mean", with Zhu Xi's chapters and sentences; the second exam examines poems, edicts, and chapters. ; In the third session, there is a question about strategies and questions, with questions from classics, history, and current affairs.If Mongolian and Semu people are willing to take the subject examinations for Han and Nan people, those who are selected will be awarded official positions with a first-class note.Mongolians and Semu people are on the first list, Han Chinese and Southerners are on the same list, and they are admitted separately.Middle electors, Mongolian and Semu people's lists are posted on the left of Zhongshu Provincial Gate, called "Zuo Bang"; Han and Southerners' lists are posted on the right of Zhongshu Provincial Gate, called "You Bang".In the first year of Yanyou, in the 11 provinces, namely Henan, Shaanxi, Liaoyang, Sichuan, Gansu, Yunnan, Lingbei, Zhengdong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Huguang, the second Xuanwei Division is Hedong and Shandong, and the four Zhili provincial roads are Dadu , Shangdu, Zhending, and Dongping recommended 300 people to participate in the examination.The distribution of places by region is as follows: Semu people accounted for 1/4 of the 300 people selected to take part in the examination.Of the 100 people admitted in the general examination, it is stipulated that 25 people will be admitted by Semuren, which also accounts for 1/4.Because the total number of Semu people is much less than 1/4 of the national population, this measure is beneficial to Semu people.From another perspective, it is also conducive to the "Sinicization" of Semu people. Against the above background, many famous Muslim scholars emerged in the Yuan Dynasty. Shansi, the word gets it, first of all, he was a native of Dashi country.His grandfather, Fuyuan, moved to Fengzhou (now Dongbaita, Hohhot).Later, he moved to Zhending (now Zhengding, Hebei) because of his appointment as an official.His father was "to learn from Mr. Confucianism".Shansi began to study Chinese classics at the age of nine, and later joined the apprentice of Wang Silian, a scholar of the Imperial Academy.Because of this, he made great progress in learning and later served as Taixian.Shansi "is deeper than the "Classic", and "Yi" is especially deep. As for astronomy, geography, clock law, arithmetic, water conservancy, and foreign books, they are all the ultimate."His works include "Emperor's Heart Method", "Four Books Queyi", "Five Classics Thoughts", "Odd and Even Yin and Yang News Map", "Old and Zhuang Jingyi", "Zhenyang Fengtu Ji", "Continued Dongyang Chronicles", "Re-edited Hefang Tongyi", "Illustrations of Western Countries", "Biography of Strangers from the Western Regions", "Jin Aizong Ji", "Biography of Zhengda Officials", "Testing and Listening Essentials" and 30 volumes of anthology. "Yuan History Confucianism Biography" has its biography. Sadura, courtesy name Tianxi, was a well-known great poet in the Yuan Dynasty, and his "Yanmen Collection" was handed down from generation to generation.Mao Jin said in the postscript: Yaoxi came to China as a descendant of the north, and became a famous scholar in the southern country by playing Rouhan day by day.Today, his poems are available in various styles, upright and passionate, not chasing the words of his predecessors. "Selected Poems of the Yuan Dynasty: Biography of Sadura" also says: In the prosperity of the Yuan Dynasty, the children of the Northwest were full of talents, with deep cultivation and outstanding talents.Yunshi, Haiya, and Ma Boyong rose to the top with their beautiful and fresh styles, and Yaoxi followed.Clear but not frivolous, beautiful but not complicated, it is also someone who can really make a difference from Yuan, Zhao, Yu, and Yang. Ding Henian, born in the late Yuan Dynasty, was born in a Muslim family.Ding Henian himself, according to the "History of the Ming Dynasty", "learned the method of Buddha at a later age" and converted to Buddhism in his later years.Ding Henian has a collection of poems handed down from generation to generation, and he was a giant in the poetry circle in the late Yuan Dynasty.Its songs in ancient style and the rhythm of five or seven words are "all beautiful and gratifying", and they are mostly praised by people of the time. "Its wording and meaning are more beautiful than Du Zimei, and the syllable style is also the director of the elders of our dynasty. Its depth of penetration and touching beauty are beyond the reach of other poets" (Dai Liang's "The Year of the Crane" sequence").Ding Henian went from being a Muslim to studying Confucianism and then studying Buddhism. This is the trilogy of Ding Henian's experience.The suitable environment for creating and performing these trilogy can only be in China. Mailu, with good characters, his grandfather Ha only served as an official in Jiangnan, so he lived in Shangyu, Zhejiang.My father is also good at learning Confucianism.Jianshan once served as the head of Hejing Academy.Soon, recommended by the Minister of Rites, he was awarded the professor of Confucianism in Jiaxing. The system of Chinese academies was founded in the Tang Dynasty, and the style of lectures flourished in the Five Dynasties and flourished in the Song Dynasty.During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, most of the scholars gave lectures in the academies, and the warm atmosphere was far higher than that of Chinese studies and local officials.There are two types of academies: government-run and private-run.The academy is different from Chinese studies and prefectural studies. The purpose of school education is for the imperial examination, while the academy is not directly linked to the imperial examination. Its purpose is not to train the successors of officials, but to study knowledge and cultivate the mind.The person in charge of the academy, known as the head of the mountain in the Yuan Dynasty, was an academic officer with a fixed position and a fixed number of staff.In addition to giving lectures, he is in charge of hospital affairs.The head of the mountain is appointed by the Ministry of Rites, the province or the Department of Xuanwei. Mai Lu grew up from a Muslim to be the dean of the academy and a professor of Confucianism.This fact itself is the best interpretation of the historical trend of Islam in China. In the Yuan Dynasty, mosques were called "worship mosques" or "huihui temples". In June of the first year of Emperor Taiding (AD 1324), a mosque was rebuilt in Shangdu and Datong Road (Datong where the government is located, today's Datong City, Shanxi).As for the location of the mosque on Datong Road, it is difficult to pinpoint it now. Hangzhou Zhenjiao Temple was built by the Hui master Alaoding during the Yanyou period (1314-1320 A.D.). The two worship temples inside and outside the Chongzheng Gate in Kunming were built in the first year when Sai Dian Chi Shan Si Ding ruled Yunnan (1274-1279 A.D.). In the Puhading tomb area of ​​Yangzhou, there are four Muslim tombstones of the Yuan Dynasty, which were removed from the city.The inscriptions on the inscriptions are mainly in Arabic, sometimes in Persian; some also have Chinese. A large number of Yuan Dynasty Muslim tombstones were discovered in Quanzhou, and most of the inscriptions are in Arabic.The systematic collation, identification, and textual research work began as early as the 1950s.The tombstones are now in Quanzhou Haijiao Museum and Xiamen University. Muslim burial groups were also found in some coastal areas of Hainan Island, and a large number of tombstones were unearthed at the same time.The inscription is in Arabic, and the work of identification and textual research is in progress.It is believed that its upper limit is no later than the Yuan Dynasty. The inscription on the mosque in Dingzhou written by Yang Yiyi in the eighth year of Zhizheng (AD 1348), the inscription on the mosque in Quanzhou written by Wu Jian in the tenth year of Zhizheng (AD 1350), and the inscription on the mosque in Guangzhou written by Guo Jia in the same year are all inscriptions in the history of Islam in China. The earliest Chinese inscriptions are extremely precious in history and teaching.