Chapter 23 Section 2 "The Analects" and "Mencius"

It is the words and deeds of Confucius (551?-479 BC) and some Confucian disciples. It was compiled according to the preserved records of Confucius' conversations in the early Warring States period (around 400 BC) more than 70 years after Confucius' death. "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi" said: "Confucius responded to his disciples, the people of the time, and the disciples talked with each other, and then heard the words of the master. At that time, the disciples had their own records. After the master died, the disciples discussed and compiled it with each other. , so it is called.” This statement is generally credible, but it is more accurate to say that it was compiled by later generations based on the materials left by the disciples of Confucianism.

In the Han Dynasty, there was a distinction between modern and ancient Chinese. "Hanshu Yiwenzhi" contains ": Twenty-one articles in ancient times" is an ancient text, "Twenty-two articles in Qi" and "Twenty articles in Lu, nineteen articles in Chuan" are modern texts. "Qi" is the "Qi Lun" handed down by Qi people in the Han Dynasty, and "Lu" is the "Lu Lun" handed down by Lu people.Three of them have been lost, and the present version is based on "Lu Lun" and "Zhanghou Lun" based on "Qi Lun".Zhang Hou was Zhang Yu, Marquis of Anchang during the reign of Emperor Cheng of the Western Han Dynasty. "Han Shu Zhang Yu Biography" said: "Yu first served Wang Yang (a scholar who passed on "Lu Lun"), and later learned from Yongsheng (Jiaodong Yongtan, a scholar who passed on "Qi Lun"), and gained what he had learned (selecting a reasonable explanation) ), came out later and was honorable. Confucianism said: "'If you want to write "Lun", read Zhang Wen. 'Because most of the scholars came from the Zhang family, and the Yu family was immersed in the micro (gradually lost). "Zhang Yu has "The Analects of Confucius", Han Lingdi Mo Xiping Shi Jing, Wei Heyan wrote "The Analects of Confucius Collection", all of which used this book, and it has been handed down from now on. Only the current version has 20 chapters, while "Hanshu· "Yiwenzhi" contains: "Lu An Changhou said 21 articles", one more article than this one, which may be Zhang Yu's commentary. The table of contents of the 20 articles in this book is as follows:

Learning and doing politics eight yi (yi) Yili Rengong Ye Changyong also said and Taibo Zihan Township Party (above is "upper") advanced Yan Yuanzi Lu Xian asked Wei Linggong Ji's Yanghuo Weizi Zi Zhang Yao said (above is "up") "Down") In the past, it was divided into upper and lower parts. The first nine records of "Shang Lun" and the tenth record of "Xiangdang" are quite complete.Perhaps initially only these 10 articles. The ninth chapter of "Xialun", "Zi Zhang", records the words of the disciples of Confucianism, while the tenth chapter, "Yao Yue", seems to be neither fish nor fowl.In terms of style, title, and content, it is not completely consistent with "Shang Lun".Maybe the second half is a sequel.In the Song Dynasty, Zhao Pu said that "govern the world with half of it", which probably refers to "The Analects of Confucius".

The study of Confucius' thought mainly depends on.Through the conversations between Confucius and his disciples, we can understand Confucius' views on destiny, morality, politics, education, etc., and at the same time, we can also see that there is one most essential thought running through all these views, that is, "benevolence". ". Confucius is knowledgeable and talented. He taught students "six arts", but he paid more attention to the cultivation of personality.In Confucius' view, "benevolence" is the basic virtue necessary for a noble person.Confucius once taught students the manifestations of "benevolence" from various angles, but he never gave a definition of "benevolence".But when Fan Chi asked "benevolence", he answered the word "lover" ("Yan Yuan").Also, he said the words "love everyone and be kind" ("Xueer").We can use today's words to give him a general definition: "benevolence" means "love the public extensively", that is, "fraternal love".Translating it into the language of ordinary Chinese people is "treating people honestly".According to Confucius’ opinion, starting from this basic character, one can compare one’s heart to another’s, push one’s own to others’, so as to “establish others if one desires to be established, and achieve others if one desires to achieve” ("Yong Ye"), "Don’t do to others what you don’t want to be done to yourself." "("Yan Yuan"); you can also be strict with yourself, do everything according to the etiquette and law without harming others, and achieve "restraining yourself and reverting to the etiquette", that is, "see no injustice, listen to no injustice, speak nothing out of etiquette, and do nothing against etiquette" (" Yan Yuan").

Confucius believed that "benevolence" can also be reflected in a person's appearance.He said: "Fortitude is dull and close to benevolence (people who are strong and persevering but dumb-mouthed are almost benevolent)" ("Zilu"), and "smart words are seldom benevolent (those who are smart in their mouths are rarely good-hearted people) "("Xue Er"). Confucius believed that "benevolence" should not be unprincipled, but should have a clear distinction between likes and hates.He said: "Only the benevolent can be good and evil (only the benevolent can love and hate others)" ("Li Ren").So when his student Ran Qiu helped Jisun, a dignitary in the state of Lu, to search for people's fat and anointment, he said angrily: "It's not my disciple! It's okay for the boy to beat the drum and attack!" ("Advanced")

Confucius believed that "ritual" and "music" are very important, but "benevolence" is the foundation of being a human being and the essence of "ritual" and "music".Without "benevolence", "ritual" and "joy" also lose their meaning.He said: "If a person is not benevolent, what is the use of etiquette! What is the use of music!" Confucius believed that "benevolence" is obtained through learning and self-cultivation.He said: "When you see a virtuous person, you think about it, and when you see a virtuous one, you should introspect yourself (when you see a virtuous person, you must try to look up to him, and when you see an unvirtuous person, you must check yourself)." Don’t be afraid to correct it (have the courage to correct mistakes).” ("Xue Er")

In addition to talking about "benevolence", Confucius also talked about "righteousness". "Righteousness" is the principle of doing things determined by the fundamental guiding ideology of "benevolence".Confucius said: "A gentleman is in the world, there is nothing suitable, nothing, and 'righteousness' is compared." ("Liren") "A gentleman refers to 'righteousness', and a villain refers to 'profit'." (A gentleman understands "righteousness", while a villain only understands "profit").

Confucian "benevolence" should be evaluated from the historical environment in which Confucius lived.Fundamentally speaking, the original meaning of the word "benevolence" is: "the benevolent is a human being", which means "taking people as human beings", that is, "loving people".Confucius was born in troubled times.His family was originally an aristocrat of the Song State, but later fell into poverty and fell to the Lu State.He lost his father when he was young, so he went out to earn a living at a young age and had to take care of his mother.Therefore, he has a certain connection with the lower class, so he sympathizes with the situation of the lower class people.At that time, it was the last days of the slave society where there were disputes among the nations, people were dying, and people were treated improperly.Facing such a dark real society, Confucius held up the banner of "benevolence" and advocated "love all people and be kind to others", which is undoubtedly great.And he did what he could do.Before Confucius, schools were in the hands of the nobles, and only the children of the nobles could go to school. Since Confucius, private schools have been established, and the children of the common people from the lower class have been widely recruited with the policy of "teaching without discrimination".This is the concrete manifestation of Confucius' great personality.

But after all, he was born in a noble family and has a strong sense of superiority as a "gentleman".So when his student Fan Chi wanted to learn how to grow crops, he was very upset and just replied indifferently: "I am not as good as an old farmer" and "I am not as good as an old garden (vegetable farmer)".And he also commented behind his back: "Fan Chi is such a villain! When the ruler talks about 'propriety', the common people dare not disrespect; No one is not dedicated, if you can achieve this step, the people in all directions will drag their sons and daughters to defect, and you will be needed to grow crops!" ("Zilu") Here, Confucius instinctively reveals his latent contempt for physical strength The aristocratic consciousness of labor, and not enlightening in person, but criticizing behind the scenes, also loses the etiquette of "teaching others tirelessly".For this "worthless" Fan Chi, it is hard to say that Confucius practiced his "universal love".The limitation of the potential traditional consciousness is inevitable even for saints.

After Confucius' death, Confucianism split into eight factions through the Warring States Period. Mencius (390 BC-305 BC) was one of them and had the greatest influence on later generations. Mencius learned Confucius' theories mainly by self-study.He himself said: "I didn't get to be a disciple of Confucius, but I am a private scholar (self-study according to other people's theories) and everyone." ".Zisi is the grandson of Confucius.Mencius was born about 100 years after the death of Confucius, and may have been taught by Confucianists of the Zisi school.Mencius believed in Confucius.He talked about "benevolence and righteousness" all his life, just like Confucius; he lobbied the princes for half his life and hit a wall everywhere, just like Confucius. "Historical Records" says that in his later years, he "retired and prefaced the "Poems" with Wan Zhang's disciples, describing the meaning of Zhongni (Confucius), and wrote seven chapters of "Mencius." This is the "Mencius" passed down today.From the perspective of style and title, this book is based on Mencius' remarks recorded by Mencius' students Wan Zhang and Gongsun Chou.The whole book is magnificent and consistent in style, which is due to Mencius' embellishment. The posthumous titles for all the princes that Mencius met (only people have posthumous titles after death) should be a later rewrite.

"Mencius" has no difference between modern and ancient.Zhao Qi in the Han Dynasty made annotations and divided the original seven chapters into two volumes, so there are actually 14 chapters in the present edition of Mencius.They are: King Hui of Liang (upper and lower) Gongsun Chou (upper, lower) Teng Wengong (top, bottom) Li Lou (Up, Down) Ten thousand chapters (upper and lower) Gaozi (Up, Down) Dedicated (up, down) Both Confucius and Mencius talked about "benevolence and righteousness". "Benevolence" refers to the basic moral character of a person; "righteousness" refers to the principle of doing things based on the moral character of "benevolence".Mencius said: "Benevolence is the human heart; righteousness is the way of people." ("Gao Zi" 1) This is a very precise and popular explanation.When talking about "benevolence and righteousness", it focuses more on "benevolence", while "Mencius" talks about "benevolence and righteousness" and focuses more on "righteousness".This is due to the different times in which the two people lived, and they may not be aware of it themselves.So Confucius emphasized: "People with lofty ideals and benevolent people do not seek to live to harm 'benevolence', but to kill themselves to achieve 'benevolence'." Also; "righteousness" is also what I want. I can't have both, and the one who sacrifices "life" and obtains "righteousness"." ("Mencius·Gaozi 1") The motto of later generations "kill one's life to become benevolent, sacrifice one's life to obtain righteousness" is derived from Extracted from these two passages of Confucius and Mencius. Mencius didn't just repeat Confucius' theory of "benevolence and righteousness", but took it a step further.He pointed out that such things as "benevolence" and "righteousness" are inherent and innate.He said: Compassion (compassion), everyone has it; shame (shame), everyone has it; respect (respect superiors), everyone has it; right and wrong (right and wrong concept), everyone has it There are.The heart of compassion is benevolence; the heart of shame is righteousness; the heart of respect is propriety; the heart of right and wrong is wisdom.Benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom are not from the outside [shuo] (additional) me, it is inherent in me. ("Gaozi 1") Starting from this premise, Mencius put forward the proposition that "everyone is good", which is his "theory of good nature".Mencius believed that as long as this kind of goodness is well cultivated and developed, "everyone can be Yao and Shun", that is to say, anyone can be a sage.For Confucius, "benevolence" is an unattainable realm.Except for Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, and Duke Zhou, no one seems to be qualified.Mencius is not the case. He said that a person who wears Yao and Shun's clothes, speaks Yao and Shun's words, and handles Yao and Shun's affairs is Yao and Shun ("Gao Zi Xia"). As for people's bad thoughts, Mencius believes that they are all caused by the environment and conditions.He said: "The children of rich years (years of good harvest) are more lazy (lazy), and the children of unlucky years (years of famine) are more violent (nonsense). It is not a talent from heaven. Ershu is not born with such a temperament. ), and those who are addicted to their minds (it is the environment that makes their minds go bad)." ("Gao Zi 1") Contrary to Mencius, Xunzi believes that people are born with evil natures (selfishness, indulgence, competition), and good thoughts are acquired through education.His theory is basically the same as that of Mencius, but the conclusion is opposite.Therefore, no matter the theory of "good nature" or "evil nature", it is a kind of idealistic speculation, but their teacher Confucius' views are more realistic.Confucius only said that "natures are similar, but habits are far away" (human natures are born similar, but the environment and customs make them different) ("The Analects of Confucius·Yanghuo"). Inferring from the "heart of compassion, everyone has it", Mencius believed: "Everyone has a heart of intolerance (compassion, compassion), and the former kings (ancient emperors) had a heart of intolerance, so there was a policy of intolerance. Hey. With a heart that can't bear others, and conduct policies that can't bear others, you can rule the world in the palm of your hand." (Governing the world is like playing a game).The so-called "government without tolerance" is also "government of benevolence", that is, politics based on loving the people.The most prominent argument in a piece of "Mencius" is to persuade the monarchs of the vassal states to implement "benevolent governance".For example, the opening paragraph of the first article "King Hui of Liang" reads: Mencius saw King Hui of Liang.The king said: "The old man (Old Master) has traveled thousands of miles, and will he benefit our country?" (Is there any teaching that can benefit our country?) Mencius said to him: "Why does the king call benefit, there is also benevolence and righteousness. Hey! (Your Majesty, why do you need to talk about benefits? Humanity and righteousness are enough.) The king said: How can I benefit my country? The doctor said: How can I benefit my family? The common people said: How can I benefit my body? All the pursuit of self-interest) and the country is in danger! ... Those who do not have benevolence abandon (abandon) their relatives, and those who do not have righteousness then (scorn) their rulers. The king also said that benevolence and righteousness are nothing more! Why bother to call benefits." This passage can represent Mencius's basic political views. Mencius's so-called "benevolent government" is to let the people live and work in peace and contentment, and let the people enjoy the same happiness as the monarch.The standards for living and working in peace and contentment are: For a five-acre house, there are mulberry trees, and those who are fifty can wear silk clothes (people who are fifty can wear silk).Chickens, pigs, dogs, and pigs do not miss the right time (do not miss the breeding period), and those who are seventy years old can eat meat.Don't seize the right time for a field of a hundred mu (don't delay their farming time), and a family of several mouths can have no hunger.I would like to teach the preface (seriously run education), affirm the righteousness of filial piety (explain the principles of filial piety to parents and love brothers), and those who give white (elderly) will not be burdened by the road (will not run around outside with things on their backs) .Those in the seventies wear silk and eat meat, and the people of Li are neither hungry nor cold. (Twice in "King Hui of Liang" and "Devotion") This is Mencius' blueprint for "benevolent government".According to Mencius, the people live and work in peace and contentment, the country is naturally stable, and the world is naturally peaceful.Therefore, people call Mencius' political thought "people-oriented".Starting from the people-oriented understanding, Mencius put forward the famous political program of "the people are the most important, the society is second, and the monarch is the least". ("With all one's heart") Mencius had such a profound thought in the Warring States Period when the people were struggling to make ends meet, which is very rare.But at the time when the princes were keen on expansion and annexation, his proposition did not work at all. The status of Mencius in the Confucian school is second only to Confucius, so after the Yuan Dynasty, he was honored as a "sub-sage" and worshiped in the Temple of Confucius.However, his remarks that "the people are more important than the emperor" once annoyed Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor of the Ming Dynasty. As a result, all the words that value the people and despise the emperor in "Mencius" were all deleted, and Mencius's god was also expelled from the Confucian Temple.But Mencius' theory is beneficial to the long-term stability of feudal society after all.In particular, he regards "benevolence and righteousness" as the nature of human beings, so all the feudal ethical codes of "loyalty to the emperor" and "filial piety" have become the natural obligations of the people.This is a new development of Mencius's Confucian theory, so Song Confucianism said that "Mencius' contribution to the Holy Gate is indescribable."Therefore, the title of "Yasheng" was restored in the end, and please go back to the Confucius Temple to eat cold pork with Confucius.The vicissitudes behind this were probably unexpected by Mencius.