Chapter 11 Section 3 Song, Yuan, Ming and New Confucianism——Song and Ming Confucianism
The third stage of the development of Confucianism is Song-Ming Confucianism.To explain clearly the origin of Neo-Confucianism, it is necessary to review the evolution of philosophy in the Wei, Jin, Sui and Tang dynasties, especially the confluence of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
The Taoist Huang-Lao thought, which was originally dominant in the early Western Han Dynasty, gave way to theology and Confucianism because of "removing all schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", but it still has strong vitality.It spread among the people, and its influence gradually grew, which had an important impact on the development of thought after the Eastern Han Dynasty.The integration of Confucianism and Taoism led to the development of a new philosophy against theology and classics in Yang Xiong and Wang Chong, especially Wang Chong's natural theory of vitality, which represented a new height of materialist philosophy.On the other hand, some Taoist scholars combined the natural theory of vitality with Confucianism, Yin-Yang School, Immortal School and even the superstition of divination and weft, and created a Taoist theory with Lao Tzu as the leader.This theory not only talks about self-cultivation and governing the country, but also about cultivating immortality, and it includes Confucian ethics, disaster condemnation, etc. It gradually gained the trust and support of the rulers, and formed China's native mass religion-Taoism.
During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the two major trends of thought, Confucianism and Taoism, continued to merge, resulting in a wonderful work in the history of Chinese philosophy - Metaphysics.Philosophy in the Han Dynasty talked about cosmology, talking about how everything in the world and human society came into being.Metaphysics is different. It changes the way of thinking and talks about ontology, explaining that the existence of all things depends on a completely different ontology from them.All things are phenomena, they are relative, temporary, and cannot exist by themselves. They can only exist because of the absolute and eternal noumenon.Phenomena are determined by the ontology, and there is a relationship between them.So what exactly is the ontology?Metaphysician Wang Bi believes that noumenon has all the stipulations of phenomena, but it cannot be said to have any specific stipulations. It is invisible and nameless, so noumenon can be called nothing.He advocated that everything in the world is based on nothingness, and his theory is called Guiwu.In the field of philosophy, what you have to solve is not only that the end depends on the end, but also that the end determines the end.Wang Bi believes that in terms of status, it is necessary to "respect the root and rest in the end" (regard the end as a determined and secondary thing); use the end).In the field of social politics, what you want to solve is the relationship between nature and religion.The so-called nature is the original state of the Taoist ideal, and the famous teaching is the Confucian political ethics, the three cardinal principles and the five constant principles.Wang Bi believed that nature is the foundation and famous teaching is the end. When the state of nature ends, there will inevitably be a situation in which the chief governs the people and has the name of honor and inferiority.On the other hand, although famous teaching is necessary, it should not be overemphasized, and should try to embody the spirit of nature, otherwise, the "mother of governance" will be lost, and serious confrontation and competition will be formed.Wang Bi's ontological philosophy occupies an important position in the history of Chinese philosophy. It guides people to enter the essence through phenomena and grasp the unity of the world through the manifold.This is incomparable to the philosophies of cosmogenesis in the Han Dynasty, including the philosophies of Dong Zhongshu and Wang Chong.However, Wang Bi's ontology has an important flaw. Because he defines the ontology as nothing, it always has a suspicion of two parts with the phenomenon, and there is a loose external relationship between the two.In fact, the ontology should be the unity of existence and non-existence. First, there is existence—truth and innocence, and secondly, there is nothing—nameless and formless.Cheng Yi of the Northern Song Dynasty understood this truth, so when talking about the relationship between noumenon and phenomena, he said: "The body and function have one source, and the microscopic is seamless" ("Cheng Shi Yi Zhuan Preface"), which better solved this problem.Secondly, influenced by this view, Wang Bi treated the relationship between nature and Mingjiao as an external relationship. According to his purpose of finding an ontology for Mingjiao, it was unsuccessful.Confucians in the Song Dynasty replaced Wang Bi's nature with Tianli (the content is abstracted benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom), and took Tianli as the body of Mingjiao, which realized what Wang Bi wanted to do but failed to do.The flaws in Wang Bigui's Wu theory were tried by other metaphysicians to make up for them, such as Pei Wei [weiwei] put forward the theory of Chongyou, Guo Xiang advocated the theory of Xuanming's individualization, etc., but these theories had their own flaws.In short, including Wang Bi and other metaphysicians, they did not exceed the limitations of the times, and the improvement of the level of theoretical thinking still needs the efforts of future generations.
Buddhism is a religion that originated in India and was introduced to China during the reign of Emperor Ai of the Western Han Dynasty.At first people regarded it as a kind of alchemy of gods, and later they used the theory of metaphysics to understand and explain it.After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, due to more and more translations and introductions of Buddhist classics, due to social turmoil and darkness, people despaired of this life, and generally hoped to get tickets to enter the kingdom of heaven, and because of the advocacy and utilization of rulers, Buddhism developed extensively.It not only has its own religious organization and a large number of believers, but also has its own independent theory.Buddhist theories became Buddhist theories as understood by the Chinese, rather than purely Indian theories.In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with the rise and strength of the temple economy and the development of theoretical thinking, Chinese Buddhist sects and their theories that were significantly different from Indian Buddhism were finally created, such as Tiantai Sect, Huayan Sect, Zen Buddhism, etc., which pushed Chinese Buddhism to its peak stage.
After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, metaphysics declined.There are three forces in the ideological field: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.The constant struggle and integration among the three religions demonstrates the rich content of the intersection, renewal and forward development of traditional and foreign ideas on the land of China.
During the struggle, the three religions gradually merged.Buddhism does not respect kings, and is not filial, but in China's feudal patriarchal monarchy, these are not feasible, so it changed its attitude, and moved closer to Confucianism's three cardinal principles and five permanent principles, affirming that it is loyal to the king and protecting the secular government; Zong Mi, an eminent monk in the Tang Dynasty, described filial piety as the fundamental way through Confucianism and Buddhism in ancient and modern times;On the one hand, Taoism continued to be loyal to the royal power and rely on Confucianism. At the same time, it absorbed Buddhist religious theories, rituals, and systems to enrich its own theories and improve its own rituals, systems, and so on.From the perspective of Confucianism, more and more people adopt a tolerant attitude towards Buddhism and Taoism, believing that they are both part of traditional culture.In addition, some people affirmed the profoundness and richness of Buddhist philosophy.Therefore, the theory of the same goal of the three religions, and the theory of the same origin of the three religions came into being.
The integration of the three religions continues to develop, and the level of integration gradually deepens from the outside to the inside. Song and Ming Taoism is the product of this general trend.As early as the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the thinker and writer Han Yu put forward the theory of Confucian orthodoxy, arguing that the Confucian orthodoxy since Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wenwu, Zhou Gong, and Confucius was influenced by the two clans (Old and Buddha), and it was established after the death of Mencius. It is impossible to pass it on, and now the orthodoxy should be taken over and passed on.This kind of thinking represents that a considerable number of Confucian intellectuals are dissatisfied with the fact that Confucianism can only be practiced in the fields of politics, morality, and folklore, but lacks theoretical depth and charm, and cannot prevail in the field of ideology.They want to revive the glory of Confucianism, defeat Buddhism and Taoism, and gain dominance in the field of thought.Although Han Yu put forward the goal, his method is unacceptable. He advocated the use of administrative means to ban Buddhism and Taoism. His scriptures were burned, and the temples were converted into residential buildings.The Confucianists after him have carried out long-term explorations to solve the problems raised by him and raised by the times.Later, people realized that it is necessary to integrate and absorb Buddhist and Taoist philosophical theories, and to philosophize Confucian ethics and moral concepts. Only in this way can we achieve success.This is the way of thinking of Taoism in Song and Ming Dynasties.Confucianists in the Northern Song Dynasty who founded Confucianism, such as Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Shao Yong, almost all "entered and exited Buddhism and Taoism".After this baptism, the Confucianism understood by Neo-Confucians is different from the primitive Confucianism of the pre-Qin period, the theology and classics of the Han Dynasty. Ritual and wisdom become the principle of heaven, human nature, and the essence of all things.Therefore, the moral life that people live according to Confucian ethics not only embodies the relationship between man and man, but also embodies the relationship between man and heaven, which not only has social significance, but also has a transcendent meaning that is quasi-religious.
Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties is a new Confucianism. It is called because it takes the principle of heaven as its essence and the ultimate good.It highlights the orthodoxy of Confucius and Mencius, so it is called Daoism. It originated in the Song Dynasty, so it is also called Song Xue, while Westerners directly call it Neo-Confucianism.The above five Confucians in the Northern Song Dynasty all made their own contributions to the establishment of Confucianism.Zhou Dunyi opened up the direction of Neo-Confucianism, Zhang Zai established the basic framework for Neo-Confucianism, and Er Cheng put forward the theory of heavenly principles, putting a striking crown on Neo-Confucianism.Although Shao Yong's theory deviates from the mainstream, it is also a front of Neo Confucianism.The founders of Neo-Confucianism have different views on ontology. Zhang Zai is based on Qi, while Ercheng is based on Li. The two have mutual criticism.In the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi took Cheng Yi's theory as the main body, absorbed the advantages of various parents, and established a comprehensive philosophy system of theory of principle.Where there is great achievement, there is also the division of schools.Lu Jiuyuan, who was a contemporary of Zhu Xi, established the theoretical system of mind-based theory to compete with Zhu Zi. This school of thought reached its peak through the creative development of Wang Shouren in the Ming Dynasty.In Neo Confucianism, Cheng Zhu's theory has always been the mainstream school. Lu Wang's mind theory was once practiced in the Ming Dynasty. Although Zhang Zai's Qi theory was promoted by Luo Qinshun, Wang Tingxiang, and Wang Fuzhi, it was always a vassal of the mainstream school. and exist.Let us introduce each point of view separately.
Zhou Dunyi (AD 1017-1073), known as Mr. Lianxi in the world, and his theory is called Lianxue.He used to be a petty official in the prefecture and county, but his life interest lies in the study of Neo Confucianism.There are not many works, but it marks the establishment of Neo Confucianism, which is of great significance in the history of thought.Great efforts have also been made in moral cultivation. People say that he has a very high character and an open mind, like "the wind and the moon".As a teacher of Er Cheng, he deeply influenced Er Cheng's thinking.
Zhou Dunyi has conducted in-depth research on Yi-ology, especially Taoist Yi-ology.In the diagram of changes passed down by Taoism, there is a "Picture of Taiji Congenital", the order is from bottom to top, indicating the method of making alchemy.Zhou Dunyi took over this picture from a Taoist priest and renamed it "Taiji Picture".I wrote "Tai Chi Tu Shuo" to explain the truth, and wrote "Yi Shuo" and "Tong Shu" to develop it.Those who opposed him believed that Zhou's plagiarism of Taoist literature did not make sense and would damage the reputation of Confucianism.Zhu Xi and other supporters believed that the pictures and pictures were profound and unprecedented, and their status could be ranked between Confucius and Mencius.Looking at it now, although Zhou's theory has obvious traces of Taoism, it seems immature compared with later works of Neo-Confucianism, but it creatively combines Confucianism with transformed Taoism, builds a new theoretical framework, and changes people's way of thinking.
Confucianists such as Zhu Xi pointed out in their evaluation of Zhou Dunyi’s contribution that he unified heaven and man with the principles of Neo-Confucianism, criticized the wrong life paths and value orientations of Buddhism, Buddhism and secularism, and promoted the spirit of Confucianism.People in the two religions of Buddhism and Taoism pay great attention to seeking the way of heaven and self-cultivation, but they are completely uninterested in governing the family, governing the country and the world, being loyal to the emperor, filial piety, benevolence, righteousness, rituals and music. The purpose of self-cultivation is to achieve liberation or longevity.The so-called secularism is the principle of lay people. They pursue meritorious service and materialistic pleasure. To them, managing the family and governing the country and the world are just means to achieve utilitarian goals.In Zhou Dunyi's view, these two kinds of people have a common characteristic, that is, they divide the way of heaven and human affairs, self-cultivation and state governance, inner sage and outer king into two parts.The secular way is selfish and filthy; Buddhism and Taoism look elegant, but the essence is still selfish.The reason for this is that people have been influenced by Buddhism, Taoism and utilitarianism for thousands of years, abandoned the teachings of Confucian saints, and embarked on the wrong path of life.In order to change this situation, to make everyone be good, and to make the country rule, we must restore the status of Confucianism and rebuild Confucianism.The new Confucianism theory is different from Buddhism, Taoism, and secularism. It penetrates heaven and man, not only teaches people self-cultivation, but also teaches people to govern the country and the world. This is Neo Confucianism.On the one hand, it wants to pursue the way of heaven, pursue people's physical and mental cultivation, and become an "inner sage";Its self-cultivation is the self-cultivation related to governing the country and the world, and its self-cultivation is the self-cultivation under the guidance of self-cultivation.Therefore, this theory truly avoids the one-sidedness of Buddhism, Taoism and secularism, and is a perfect combination of inner sage and outer king.This is the spirit of the entire Neo-Confucianism, and Zhou Dunyi's contribution lies in first revealing this spirit.
Among the five sons of the Northern Song Dynasty, Shao Yong (1011-1077 A.D.), who was born earlier, was a Yi scholar of the Xiangshu school.He also wanted to find a metaphysical basis for Confucian ethics and politics.He claimed that the Book of Changes spread in the world is Wen Wang Yi, which belongs to the acquired Yi, and there is also a little-known innate Yi, which is Fuxi's Yi.It contains "Huangji" - the fundamental way of all things in the world, which can be used to govern all things in the world.His own main job is to elucidate this innate ease of learning.
Xiantian Yi is a kind of theory of Xiangshu, which is different from Houtian Yi used by Xiang mathematicians in the past. It uses Qiankun Kanli as the four orthographic hexagrams, and changes in numbers determine the changes of Xiang.Shao Yong used "Eight Diagrams Sequence Diagram" and "Sixty-Four Hexagrams Sequence Diagram" to explain that the number starts from one (Tai Chi) and doubles forward. , namely Yang
He made "Azimuth Diagram of Eight Diagrams" and "Azimuth Diagram of Sixty-Four Hexagrams", arranging the position of each hexagram, the position of four directions and four seasons according to the principles of yin and yang opposition and the ebb and flow of yin and yang, and thus showing the cyclical movement of the rise and fall of things.He also used the "Huangji Jingshitu" to represent the periodic development of the entire universe.In the picture, there are four time concepts of Yuanhui, Yunshi, and Yuan. One Yuan is a cycle of the universe. One Yuan includes 12 Huis, one Hui includes 30 Yuns, one Yun includes 12 lives, and one life includes 30 years. Therefore, one cycle of the universe is 129,600 years.In the Yuan Dynasty we live in, the sky opened in the first meeting, the earth opened in the second meeting, all things came out of the third meeting, Tang Yao came out in the sixth meeting where the yang energy was the most prosperous, and the three generations to the Song Dynasty were all on the decline. The seventh meeting, the 11th meeting will destroy all things, and the 12th meeting will destroy the world.Then start a new meta.The essence of the cyclical movement of Yuan is the passage and ebb and flow of yin and yang. At the beginning, yang is born, and gradually develops and grows.
Shao Yong, like Zhou Dunyi, tried to unify heaven and man, explain everything with a philosophical Confucian principle, and guide people's ethical and political life.However, his system is too large and cumbersome, and contains a lot of random content. In particular, he advocates the joy of "observing things" on top of the joy of Mingjiao. This kind of joy is to understand the laws of the universe and regard everything as The passing smoke is the joy with Taoist color produced after liberation.Therefore, Ercheng and many Neo-Confucians did not appreciate him very much.Shao Yong wanted to teach Er Cheng his mathematics, but they said, how can we have the time to learn that!During the period of Wang Anshi's New Deal, Shao Yong was cautious and neither expressed support nor opposition, so he was not hit.Cheng Yi said, "Shao Yaofu (Shao Yong's character) was happily taken by him for ten years in the torrent" ("Henan Cheng Shiwaishu", Volume 11), Cheng Yi is a staunch conservative, and he did not say this. Not a compliment.
It was Zhang Zai (1020-1077 A.D.) who made a major contribution to the construction of the Neo-Confucianism framework. He was born in Hengqu Town, Mei County, Guanzhong, and was called Mr. Hengqu, and his theory was called Guan Xue.Zhang Zai was eager to learn and think deeply, and worked very hard. He often slept on the bed at night and still thought about it. When he had a good idea, he immediately got up and held a lamp to record it.Zhang Zai's ontology is formed by criticizing and inheriting the thoughts of Buddha and Lao.The Buddhists used nothingness as their noumenon to explain that the seemingly real things in the world turned out to be illusory and unreal, and led people to come out of the world, which Zhang Zai opposed.But the invisible body can be better connected with all things with different shapes, which is another advantage of Buddha's thought.Therefore, in Zhang Zai's mind, the ontology of Neo-Confucianism should have both the most real content and the most empty form of existence.Inspired by "The Book of Changes", Zhang Zai believes that it is the qi that exists in the form of Taihe or Taixu.
Zhang Zai believes that there are two states of gathering and dispersing of qi. The dispersing of qi is its original state, which is Taixu, and the gathering of qi is its temporary form, which is the world and everything.Qi gathers to form all things, and everything disperses to form emptiness. This is the eternal movement of Qi.Why can Qi move and change?He explained it with the contradiction between yin and yang.Qi is divided into yin and yang, because one is divided into two, so it can change, and because the two are combined into one, it is mysterious and unpredictable.Zhang Zai also used his Qi Ontology to criticize the mistakes of Buddhism and Taoism, especially pointing out that it is completely paradoxical for Buddhism to attribute everything in the world to the function of the human heart, or even to "seeing a disease" (visual error).Zhang Zai's materialism and dialectics have a prominent position in the history of philosophy, but he is a Neo Confucianist whose purpose is to establish an ontological basis for Confucian ethics.Neo-Confucianists and Psychologists directly set Confucian ethics as the principle of heaven and the original mind, which is simple and straightforward; Zhang Zai takes Qi as the body, and an intermediary is needed to go from Qi to benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom.This intermediary is the transcendence of qi.He pointed out that although qi is the essence of all things, the natural state of qi, which is too empty, is different in principle from specific things.Taixu is what people call heaven.The qi of Taixu is extremely clear, so it is miraculous; after forming all things, its qi is heavy and turbid, obstructing and obstructing.This natural difference makes heaven and earth and all things completely different. "All forms and shapes are the dross of God" ("Zhengmeng Taihe").On this basis, Zhang Zai also endowed heaven with ethics, such as the order of life in heaven (Tianxu), and the order of differences and harmony after being born (Tianzhi). The etiquette of humility is the result of understanding the order of heaven and order of heaven.He also pointed out that the reason why heaven keeps its word is because it has the nature of sincerity; it is because it has the nature of benevolence that all things are created by nature.In this way, the important principles of Confucian ethics and morals are completely based on Taixu—the sky. Therefore, following the Confucian moral norms has an unusual meaning, making people like the sky, united with the sky, and transcended.
Zhang Zai's theory of human nature played an important role in the development of Confucianism.He believes that human beings have both the nature of destiny from Taixu and the nature of temperament from their own body.The nature of destiny is the same for everyone, that is, sincerity, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, faith, etc., but temperaments are different in thickness, making people wise and stupid, rich and poor, noble and humble.He asked the gentleman not to take the nature of temperament as his nature, but to try his best to restore the nature of destiny, that is, to carry out moral cultivation.He divides sex into two types: fate and temperament. The former is used to explain the goodness of human nature, and the latter is used to explain the differences in the actual moral level and encounters. This is a major development of the theory of good nature since Mencius.Zhu Xi vehemently praised this theory as "extremely meritorious for the Holy Gate and useful for later studies" (Volume 4 of "Zhu Zi Yu Lei").
In terms of epistemology and self-cultivation theory, Zhang Zai proposed that there are two kinds of human knowledge, one is the virtue of nature, and the other is the knowledge of hearing and seeing.The former is a mysterious intuition of philosophical and ethical issues such as Taixu, benevolence and righteousness; the latter is a perceptual knowledge of specific things.He affirms that the virtues of heaven and conscience do not come from hearing and seeing, but from cultivation, but he does not deny that hearing and seeing has a certain enlightening effect on the generation of virtue and conscience.Human understanding and self-cultivation have a process from gradual cultivation to epiphany.These views inspired later Neo Confucians.Although Zhang Zai made great contributions to the establishment of Neo-Confucianism, he was criticized by Cheng Zhu because he did not highlight the principles of heaven and talked more about the natural philosophy of qi.
The authentic and mainstream of Neo-Confucianism is the theory (known as Luo Xue) initiated by brothers Cheng Hao (AD 1032-1085) and Cheng Yi (AD 1033-1107).Ercheng is from Henan (now Luoyang), he was born in an official family, he was friendly with Sima Guang, Fu Bi and others, and he opposed Wang Anshi's New Deal. Pretty bumpy.When they were young, they studied under Zhou Dunyi, the founder of Neo Confucianism. After engaging in the research and lectures of Neo Confucianism, they exchanged ideas with Zhang Zai and Shao Yong.The excellent academic environment, coupled with my intelligence and hard work, have enabled them to reach unprecedented heights in theory.
The most important concept in Ercheng's theoretical system is Li or Tianli, and what they expounded is the theory of Tian.There is qi in the world, and qi is yin and yang. The ebb and flow of yin and yang form the movement and change of all things in the world, birth and death.But the reason why qi can be like this is because there is a principle playing a dominant role in it.Li is always combined with Qi. Qi is tangible and is a physical thing, while Li is invisible and a metaphysical thing.Li is the reason of qi and the basis of qi.Cheng Yi said, "So the yin and yang are the Tao" (Volume 15 of "Henan Cheng's Posthumous Letters").Therefore, the Yin-Yang is the thing that makes Yin-Yang become Yin-Yang. Cheng Yi thinks that is Dao, and Dao is reason.Everything has its own reason, are these reasons irrelevant?No, Ercheng pointed out that "all principles come from one principle" (Ibid., Volume 18), that is to say, there is one most fundamental principle, from which all principles arise.Therefore, in the final analysis, "there is only one principle in the world" (ibid.), this principle is the fundamental spirit of Confucian ethics, and it is regarded as the benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom of the universe and all things.Tianli is the jewel in the crown of Neo-Confucianism, and the proposal of Tianli marks the basic completion of the construction of Neo-Confucianism.On the basis of the theory of heaven, Ercheng put forward the theory of human nature and the theory of gewuzhizhi.Later, Zhu Xi took the theories of Er Cheng, especially Cheng Yi, as the backbone, combined with the theories of other Neo Confucian predecessors, and created the comprehensive Zhu Zixue.Ercheng's theory will continue to be elucidated in conjunction with Zhu Xi's theory.
The philosophical thoughts of Cheng and Cheng are basically the same, but they are also slightly different.Cheng Yi strictly distinguishes between the above and below the form, the heart belongs to the form below, and the reason belongs to two different levels.Zhu Xi continued to develop this idea, proposing that sex is reason and mind is not reason, and that mind and nature must be distinguished.Cheng Hao paid more attention to the role of the center of gravity, and did not distinguish between the upper and the lower. These views were praised by Lu Jiuyuan (named Xiangshan) and Wang Shouren (named Yangming), and became an important ideological resource for Lu Wang's philosophy of mind.
The most important representative of Neo Confucianism was Zhu Xi (1130-1200 AD).Beginning from the Northern Song Dynasty, China's feudal society entered a later stage of development.The Southern Song Dynasty where Zhu Xi lived was oppressed by the Jin people and Mongols outside, and there was a profound social crisis inside.In his view, only by rebuilding the authority of Confucianism can people's hearts be rectified and the existence of the Southern Song Dynasty maintained.He proceeded in accordance with the principle-based theory opened by Cheng Yi, that is, he elevated the Confucian moral norms to heavenly principles, confirmed the status of heavenly principles as the essence of all things, and stipulated that heavenly principles are the laws of all things and the value goal of human beings.Teach people to get rid of human desires, preserve the principles of nature, cultivate morality, and become sages.Zhu Xi’s theory on Li Qi holds that there are Li and Qi in the world, and the combination of Li and Qi forms all things.The totality of principles is Tai Chi, and the principles of Tai Chi exist in everyone and everything, so everyone has a Tai Chi, and things have a Tai Chi, and Tai Chi is the nature of a person.So what exactly is the nature of Tai Chi?He said: "Xing is the complete body of Taiji. It cannot be described by name, but it contains all principles, and there are four major principles in it. Therefore, it is called benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom." For the argument of the three cardinal principles and five constant principles (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith), Wang Bi's ontology is better than Dong Zhongshu's theological teleology, and Zhu Xi's principle-based approach is much better than Wang Bi's non-being-based approach.However, since there is only one principle of Taiji in the universe, how to explain the complexity of the world—the variety of things, the dignity and lowliness of the world?Zhu Xi explained it by using Ercheng's theory of "one principle is different".The so-called distinction refers to the difference in the position of qi due to different conditions such as partial completeness, clearness, turbidity, thickness, etc. For example, those who have partial qi are objects, those who have full qi are people, and those who have clear qi among people are holy wisdom. Those who get turbidity are stupid, those who get thick are rich and noble, those who get thin are poor and lowly, and so on.Although there is only one reason, the aspects it can reveal in different positions of qi are quite different.This cleverly finds an explanation for the differences between all things, mainly the differences between people.
Zhu Xi's theory of mind and nature comprehensively solves the problem of the relationship between the subject (mind) and the natural principle as human nature, and indicates that sacrificing is the way to cultivate ideal personality.He agrees with Zhang Zai's view that "mind governs temperament" (Volume 5 of "Zhu Zi Yu Lei"), which means that the heart includes two aspects of sex and emotion. When it comes out, this heart is Dao heart, and this emotion is kind.If the heart causes emotion to emanate from the form and energy, then the heart is the human heart, and the emotion is not necessarily good.If the human heart expands, the lust increases, and even the Dao heart is wiped out, it becomes evil.That is to say, human beings have both the basis for doing good (human nature is reason, which is good), and the possibility of doing evil (human beings have a body and have various material requirements), and the human heart is active. The choice and decision of the human heart.Therefore, Zhu Xi believes that in order to make people good and holy, it is necessary to make the Taoist mind dominate and the human heart obey orders, "remove human desires and restore heavenly principles" (Zhu Ziyu Lei, Volume 13).
Although the law of heaven is in the human heart, people are not born knowing what is the law of heaven and what is not.Zhu Xi believed that in order to understand the principles of heaven, one must investigate things and extend knowledge according to the teachings of "University".He said that everything in the world has its own rationale, and the so-called investigation of things is to find out the principles of things, to explain and explore the natural principles contained in each thing.People have knowledge (knowledge here refers to the understanding of Confucian ethics), but this knowledge is always one-sided and superficial at the beginning. If you want to expand this knowledge (extend knowledge), you must rely on Gewu.One thing today, one thing tomorrow, when accumulated to a certain level, it will suddenly be connected, "the surface and the interior of all things are all refined, and the overall great use of my heart is all clear" ("University Chapters").Although his knowledge does not come from Gewu, Gewu can inspire and assist knowledge. This kind of affirmation of Gewu is somewhat conducive to the research of natural science. People called natural science Gezhi in the late Qing Dynasty, which has something to do with him. .In addition, Zhu's so-called sudden penetration is not a leap from perceptual knowledge to rational knowledge, but a mysterious epiphany of noumenon—reason or nature.Due to political reasons during Zhu Xi's lifetime, his theory was once called pseudo-learning by the court, and was once suppressed and attacked.But things changed radically shortly after his death.Since the Northern Song Dynasty, the status of "University", "The Doctrine of the Mean", and "Mencius" has gradually increased. After being commended by Zhu Xi, they have a greater influence and are compiled into four books, which are almost more important than the Five Classics.Zhu Xi's "Four Books Collected Notes" has been a compulsory textbook for scholars from the Yuan Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, and the standard answers for the imperial examinations. Opposition to it will be severely punished.With such a special status, a kind of theory inevitably tends to become rigid, and Zhu Zixue took exactly this path after the Ming Dynasty.
Another important representative of Neo-Confucianism after Zhu Zi was Wang Shouren (AD 1472-1529), who advocated the theory of mind in the Ming Dynasty.He believed that people at that time regarded Confucianism as pure knowledge and even a stepping stone to become an official, instead of using it to cultivate their body and mind, which caused a lot of abuse.He also believed that the source of the malpractice was that the Neo Confucianism advocated by Zhu Xi had theoretical problems.Zhu Xi believed that reason exists in all things, and what is necessary is the lack of reason.Wang Shouren believes that reason is not in things but in people's hearts, because "the heart is reason" (middle).Wang Shouren was originally a student of Zhu Zixue. In order to practice the theory of "getting things", he faced the bamboo garden "getting" for seven days and seven nights. Not only did he get nothing, but he also fell ill. for the second tendency.For a time, he devoted himself to Buddhism and Taoism, and gained a lot.Later, he was relegated to Guizhou Longchangyi (now Xiuwen County) as an official, still thinking hard about the relationship between mind and reason, and suddenly realized one night: "The way of a sage is that my nature (heart) is self-sufficient" ("Chronicles") , So he shouted and jumped, and since then "enlightened the Tao" and embarked on the road of mind learning.Therefore, the starting point of Wang Xue was the problems he discovered in Zhu Zixue, but could not be solved in Zhu Zi’s system. The leaven that prompted Wang Xue’s production was Buddhism and Taoism, especially the Zen school of understanding the mind and seeing nature.
Zen believes that the human heart is the Buddha nature, and Wang Shouren believes that the human heart is the law of heaven.Of course, this heart refers to the original heart of a person.The original mind is the unity of heavenly principles and clear consciousness, so heavenly principles can naturally be found in the heart, and what comes out of the original mind must also be heavenly principles.Li is external to Zhu Xi's "mind", but internal to Wang Shouren's "mind", which is a major change.From an ethical point of view, Zhu Xi wanted to use moral norms (obligations) to control people, while Wang Shouren changed to use moral consciousness (conscience) to control people.From the perspective of the world, Zhu Xi's principles are both natural laws and moral norms. He advocated deriving the latter from the former through investigating things, but it is not feasible.Wang Shouren's theory of "heart is reason" only involves moral conscience and moral concepts, but not natural laws. It exalts people's subjective initiative, teaches them to be self-respecting and fearless, and not to blindly follow external authority, even Confucian sages.He once said: "Study is valuable to get from the heart, and it is not to seek it from the heart. Although it comes from Confucius, I dare not think it is true, and it is not as good as Confucius! It is not to seek it from the heart." , although what he said came from mediocrity, I dare not think it wrong, let alone the one who came from Confucius!" (中) The truth must be recognized by one's own heart, and what is not recognized by one's own heart cannot be believed even if it comes from Confucius.Even if it comes from ordinary people, it should not be easily denied.
After Wang Shouren established his basic ideas, he changed his "teaching method" many times and publicized his basic ideas from different angles.He talked about the unity of knowledge and action, meditation, keeping the principles of nature and eliminating human desires, sincerity, and finally launched the theory of reaching conscience in 1521, and finally completed his own system. "The unity of knowledge and action" actually means the unity of knowledge and action.Both knowledge and action are the functions of the noumenal mind, the difference is that knowledge is the beginning, action is the completion; knowledge is the content of thought, and action is the actual activity.This theory has a relatively strong practical color. Therefore, if you talk about it from the side of goodness, those who only know how to do it are not knowing. Even if it is good, if a person has the idea of against the father of the king, it is considered to be against the father of the king.The standards are so different that it cannot be said to be fair.To Conscience is the product of the combination of Wang Shouren's "heart is reason" thought and the framework of "University".He believes that conscience is the essence of the mind, the principle of heaven, and the most fundamental knowledge. However, to turn conscience into actual knowledge and action, we must work hard to "extend knowledge". That's what it means.In "University", zhizhi and gewu are connected together, and zhiwu must be gewu in order to know.Wang Shouren said that character is righteousness, and that what is not righteous can be changed into righteousness; things are not objects, but affairs and things that people are engaged in, and they are naturally inseparable from people's ideas.So he said: "Where the mind lies is the thing." (Part 1) So for him, the investigation of things is "the right thought", which makes the wrong thought right.The same moral behavior, from the aspect of doing good, is the promotion of conscience, and from the aspect of eliminating evil, it is the investigation of things.From the aspect of carrying out the principles of heaven, it is knowing, and from the aspect of making things conform to the principles of heaven, it is called investigating things.The "Great Learning" explained by the theory of Gewuqiong is Zhu Xi's position, and the "Great Learning" explained by the theory of Zhiliangzhi is Wang Shouren's position. With the "Great Learning" position, Yangming School can compete with Zhu Zixue.
The original intention of Wang Shouren to establish Yangming School was to improve the moral consciousness of feudal literati and save the political crisis at that time.However, because he activated the long-repressed hearts and instilled the consciousness of self-mastery, he was welcomed by people from all walks of life who are dissatisfied with reality.People from all walks of life interpreted Yangming School according to their own understanding, causing it to split into many factions shortly after Wang Shouren's death. Among them, the Ready-made School of Wang Gen and Wang Ji represented the interests of the citizens and was very active in the late Ming Dynasty.The entry of the Qing soldiers not only interrupted the development of the commodity economy, but also ended the development of the entire Wang School, and Zhu Zixue was re-established as a statue.
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