Chapter 14 Chapter Five Ornamental Sculpture

Jade is a very special kind of sculpture. Although there is a saying that big jade cannot be carved, jade must always be polished into a tool.The process of pondering is the process of sculpture.When studying jade today, the shape of the vessel is certainly important, but the cultural nature represented by jade is more worth exploring.This is because jade is very symbolic and allegorical, so jade carving works should not be appreciated only from the surface form, but should be grasped from the connotation. Jade is the "beauty of stone", which was separated from stone by primitive people in the activities of using stone in large quantities.Today's field archeology has proved that Chinese primitive people used jade extensively in sacrifices.The invitation of jade from the altar to become an object of life began in the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

Regarding the jade wares of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, Guo Baojun summed it up well in the book "The Bronze Age of China": "In the Stone Age, stone wares were mainly simple and practical objects. By the Bronze Age, stone wares gradually declined, and jade wares prospered, meaning practical There are few, but there are many meanings for appreciation, so it becomes a treasure, and it is a jade. From loving treasures, people with different positions are restricted, so it is Ruiyu. From loving treasures, it turns into bribing ghosts and gods, so it is sacrifice jade. .Because of loving beautiful jade and wishing to eat and live forever, wishing to die and be immortal, they buried jade. These have nothing to do with people's livelihood and practicality. However, jade wares in the state of consciousness of Yin and Zhou people endow people's quality, strengthen people's hearts, and imply There are many achievements in education; and there are also many brilliant productions in the work of Wanwan, and the achievements of the entire culture cannot be concealed by jade wares."

It is recorded in "Yi Zhou Shu·Shi Pu Jie" that King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty used 4,000 pieces of jade to form a circle around himself when he was defeated and burned himself to death.It is also said that after King Wu of Zhou conquered the Shang Dynasty, he obtained jade "forty thousand" from the Shang Dynasty.These figures may be exaggerated, but the fact that the Shang royal family used a lot of jade exists. In 1976, about 700 pieces of jade were unearthed from the tomb of Fuhao, the consort of Wuding, king of Shang, discovered at the Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan.This batch of jade wares is not only large in number and variety, but also a considerable part of the jade wares are decorations.Because the tomb of Fuhao is the tomb of a princess, its jade wares represent the highest achievement of the Shang Dynasty.Some of the jade wares in Fu Hao’s tomb may have been specially made for the burial, and some may have been used for burial during her lifetime, including all types of jade used in Shang and Zhou societies (ceremonial jade, sacrificial jade, adornment jade, burial jade, etc.).Generally speaking, the lines of the jade wares from Fuhao's tomb are not very smooth, whether it is animals or figures, the outer contours are more square and turning.However, among this batch of jade wares, there are works such as the jade phoenix looking back at the long tail, which are full of a kind of smooth beauty of curves.The other two head portraits of jade figures also broke the expression method of square folds, and the whole head looks round and full due to the general transition of curved surfaces.These also show that the Shang Dynasty had the ability to produce jade articles with smooth lines.But why there are so many square-turned jade wares in Fuhao's tomb has to be left as a question.A nude jade figure in Fuhao's tomb is flat and carved on both sides, one side is male and the other side is female.This kind of hermaphrodite sculpture has already appeared in Neolithic pottery sculptures, and they may all represent the reproductive theme of male and female copulation and the transformation of all things.Also in Yinxu, the jade turtle discovered in the north of Xiaotun Village in 1975 is a very important work.Its carapace is black, and its head, neck and abdomen are off-white. This is a work of art that cleverly utilizes the natural texture and color of jade.This method is called "pretty color" today, and it is still a test question to test the creative talents of arts and crafts artists.

Two weeks is the era of "rituals". Activities such as sacrifices, burials, and social activities all run through the content of rituals. The various uses of jade in this period are all imprinted with rituals.Sacrificial jade is used to worship gods, bribe gods, welcome gods, thank gods, and entertain gods. It is based on the spirituality of jade itself, which is the continuation of people's understanding since primitive society.The shapes of sacrificial jade are mainly symbolic geometric shapes (such as the former Bi, Cong, Huang, etc.).The spirituality of jade is also widely used in burying jade. The ancients believed that jade can harmonize all gods and make the corpse immortal.The purpose of primitive people placing jade in their tombs is still unclear, but Shang and Zhou people used jade to protect corpses, based on many theories.Jade ware to protect the corpse, wrapped in some small square pieces of clothing (jade clothes); Jade that plugs the nine orifices (eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, anus, urethra), except for the male genitals that are plugged into the male urethra In addition, the rest are mostly carved into various small animal figures or geometric shapes, which are crystal, smooth and very cute.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the two most important aspects of the use of jade were "a gentleman is better than jade" and "the beauty of clamor".The former is to endow jade with moral content, and the latter is to bring out the characteristics of "the beauty of stone" as much as possible.The former is to evolve the spirituality of jade into character, and the latter is to restore jade to physical properties.From the perspective of jade carving, there is no new creation of jade with moral connotation, nothing more than re-identifying the jade in the past from a moral point of view.Of course, this kind of identification also starts from the characteristics of jade's "beauty of stone", but the result of the identification is to rise to rationalization, such as "warm and lustrous, benevolent", "the sound of knocking is clearer and longer, and the end is 〔qu Qu 〕Ran, Le Ye", "Meticulous to chestnut, know also" and so on.With these understandings, it is natural that "a gentleman will never die without a reason".The ones that really show the beauty of jade carvings in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods are mainly adornment jades that belong to the "hustle and bustle" category. The word "huohuo" comes from "Guoyu·Chu Yuxia". It is recorded that Wang Sunyu (yu Yu), a doctor of Chu, answered a question from Zhao Jianzi, a doctor of Jin, and compared the jade with the sound of bumping and singing when saluting to "the beauty of Huohuo". Planting jade cannot be sacrificed to the ghosts and gods of heaven and earth.The jade jade of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods is a mature and highly decorative "group".A group is a combination, which is to match different shapes and colors of jade according to different parts of the body, which can not only receive "pleasing" visual effects, but also collide with various pleasant sounds.Today, some modern movable sculptures use some means to make the sculptures have pleasing colors and pleasing sounds. Except for the different times, the artistic pursuit is the same as in ancient times. The real objects of the "group" include the six groups of jade pendants unearthed from the Warring States Tomb in Liuli Pavilion, Huixian County, Henan Province, and the group jade pendants from the Early Warring States Tomb in Suixian County, Hubei Province. These jade pendants have very exquisite patterns.Judging from the general picture of Peiyu in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, besides geometric shapes such as Heng (hengheng), Huang, Ju (juju), and Bi, Peiyu also has many imitation works of animals and supernatural objects such as dragons and phoenixes. The shape is a combination of various curves, as smooth as clouds and water, and those openwork jades are more exquisite and vivid.

In the cultural atmosphere of Qin and Han Dynasties serving people's lives, jade was also widely used in people's lives.At that time, not only Peiyu was widely used, but also many daily necessities were made of jade.These jade wares for daily use not only have many types, but also are more complex, delicate or larger in production.For example, the 7.5-foot-high sapphire five-branch lamp that Liu Bang saw in the Xianyang Palace of the Qin Dynasty, the sapphire shop head of the Maoling Mausoleum of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, and so on. (Fig. 26) In 1983 in Guangzhou, the tomb of Zhao Mi (meimei), the second generation king of the Nanyue king of the Western Han Dynasty, was unearthed. The jade wares unearthed are extremely exquisite, which can be called the essence of jade wares in the Han Dynasty.Such as gorgeous group jade pendants, openwork jade biscuits with dragon and phoenix patterns, gold hooks and jade dragons, jade belt hooks with dragon and tiger, jade dancers, jade horn cups, jade bearing dew plates, etc.One of the open-carved phoenix-pattern decorations is centered on a rectangle with a cloud-head pattern on the top and a curly-tailed phoenix on the bottom. On one side of the rectangle is a phoenix pedal and a jade disc, and on the other side is a hanging wreath.This work is delicately conceived, breaking with the method commonly used in jade wares, with complex and asymmetrical patterns.Each part of this piece of work is a complete work when separated, but when combined, it appears seamless and very harmonious.Zhao Tuo, king of Nanyue, was born in Zhending County (now Zhengding County, Hebei).In 204 BC, Zhao Tuo took advantage of the conflict between Chu and Han to establish the Nanyue Kingdom and proclaim himself king.After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, South Vietnam became a vassal to the central government, but actually still acted as an emperor.There were five generations of kings in South Vietnam until the country was destroyed in 111 BC.The Nanyue Kingdom existed for nearly a century and was greatly influenced by the Central Plains.The art of Nanyue Kingdom has many local characteristics in the shape and decoration of some bronze and pottery wares, but the jade wares are typical of the Central Plains culture in terms of production and subject matter.Therefore, the batch of exquisite jade wares in the tomb of the Nanyue king is a rare treasure that enables us to understand the art of jade wares in the Western Han Dynasty.

The development of Chinese jadeware reached a new peak in the Han Dynasty.On the one hand, this peak is reflected in the more superb and advanced carving skills, on the other hand, it is reflected in the fact that many jade wares for play and appreciation did not really appear until the Han Dynasty.There are many kinds of Han jade articles unearthed underground and handed down from ancient times, such as various jade pendants, jade belt hooks, jade sheep, jade horses, jade evil spirits, etc., made of various jade materials such as sapphire, topaz, and white jade.While seeking auspiciousness and driving away evil, these jade wares are all furnishings in the living room or things that can be touched by the body.Representatives of this type of jade are the Yupushou unearthed in 1975 near the Maoling Mausoleum of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty in Xingping County, Shaanxi, the galloping horse of the Jade Immortal unearthed in 1966 at the site of Pingling Mausoleum of Emperor Han Zhao in Xianyang, and the galloping horse of Emperor Han Yuan in Xianyang from 1966 to 1976. Jade eagles, jade bears, and jade warding off evil spirits near Weiling, and jade figures unearthed in 1968 from the tomb of Liu Sheng, King Jing of Zhongshan in Mancheng, Hebei.These jade wares, mainly unearthed from imperial mausoleums, can be regarded as the best jade wares of the Han Dynasty.They are carefully selected materials, exquisite workmanship, and ingenious ideas. Even after thousands of years, their charm has not diminished in the slightest.

The new style of jade appreciation advocated by the Han Dynasty, after the trough of the Three Kingdoms, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, set off one after another climax in the Tang, Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. "Beginner's Notes" written by Xu Jian in the prosperous Tang Dynasty is an official revision book, which is specially used by the princes of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty to practice essays.Jade is listed as a "treasure vessel" in this book, and jade also has a place in the Tang people's concept of inheriting the gold and silver objects of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.In addition to some of the functions of ritual vessels in the Tang Dynasty, the main trend was to be made into daily necessities and furnishings in the form of containers.The former are like jade ornaments (Danfeng Buyao, Shuangfeng Pei, Feitian Pei), jade belt boards, etc., while the latter are like jade cups, jade cups, etc.The jade wares of the Tang Dynasty were a critical period of transformation from the freedom, vividness, and unrestrainedness of the Han Dynasty to the direction of fine workmanship, exquisiteness, and elegance.The main reason for this transformation is vulgarization.On the one hand, the vulgarization of the market is that the realistic flower and bird patterns are expressed on the jade in the form of relief and openwork in a natural posture, making this kind of jade exquisite, fresh and full of vitality; Jade is simple and plain.These changes in jade wares in the Tang Dynasty directly affected the characteristics of jade wares in all dynasties and dynasties after Tang Dynasty.

The Song Dynasty was the heyday of the vulgarization of the jade market, and serving the citizens became the main purpose of jade production during this period.There are not only workshops for making jade articles in the city, but also shops selling jade articles.The first feature of this kind of jade production that serves the citizens, that is, the citizenization of jade, is that in addition to using jade to process various supplies, jade is also commonly used to make decorations and ornamental objects in people's lives, and even some gods Such as Avalokitesvara, etc. also lost their divinity and entered these categories.The story book "Grinding Jade Guanyin": "Let's say that the court officials went to the side hall to look at jade wares one day, and picked up this jade Guanyin to see." It hurts one eye; the Jin people sent envoys to celebrate their birthdays, and used the white jade Avalokitesvara with thousands of hands and eyes as their birthday, which means to play with each other." The above two records refer to the Jade Avalokitesvara in the inner palace collection of the Song Dynasty and used it for viewing purposes .The second characteristic of the citizenization of jade wares in the Song Dynasty is that the image of "Mahaluo" (that is, the image of a child holding a lotus leaf) with the content of Buddhist lotus and peanuts appeared in large numbers in jade wares.This phenomenon is actually a continuation of the concept of reproductive worship in primitive society.The third characteristic of the citizenization of jade wares in the Song Dynasty is the wide use of flower and bird themes.The Song Dynasty jades created with the theme of flowers and birds are fresh and elegant, with harmonious proportions and full of painting interest.In terms of shape and decoration, this type of jade emphasizes symmetry, balance and patterning.Therefore, this kind of jade can be regarded as the fusion of life and art.The representative works of jade wares with flower and bird theme in Song Dynasty are a group of jade ornaments found in Changgouyu Stone Coffin Tomb in Fangshan County, Beijing in 1974.Such as "Double Cranes Holding Grass Decoration", "Folding Flower Decoration", "Openwork Bamboo Branch Decoration", "Open Carving Folding Branch Flower Lock" and so on.These batches of jade wares are all made with superb hollow-out carving techniques. The works are exquisite, novel and exquisite, which are pleasing to the eye.Among them, the images of folded branches, flowers and bamboo branches are the first to appear in jade wares.Contrary to the ethos of citizenization, the style of antique jade was popular in Song Dynasty jade wares.Regardless of the value of antique jade itself, it is unique in terms of the experience and techniques of antique, old-fashioned material selection, and processing.

The Liao and Jin jade wares of the same period as the Song Dynasty mainly achieved achievements in the theme of flowers and birds.These flower-and-bird theme jade wares are exquisitely crafted, fresh and refreshing.Representatives of Liao and Jin jade wares are "Autumn Mountain Jade" and "Spring Water Jade".The so-called "autumn mountains" and "spring waters" are because in "Golden History", the costumes with tiger and deer mountain forest patterns are called "autumn mountain decorations", and the costumes with falcon (huhu) catching swan patterns are called "spring water decorations". ".Therefore, the academic circles generally refer to jade articles with these two patterns as "Qiushan Jade" and "Chunshui Jade" respectively.The main images of Qiushan jade are tigers and deer, followed by eagles, magpies, rocks, trees, etc.; the main images of Chunshui jade are eagles, swans, lotus leaves, lotus flowers, water plants, etc.The jade wares made with these basic contents, due to the various collocations of the expressive contents and the transformation of the techniques, vary greatly from one piece to another, without any similarity or repetition.Compared with traditional jade wares, Qiushan jade and Chunshui jade show eagles, swans, tigers and deer, lotus, mountain stones and forests, etc., which are unprecedented.The nimble and brave eagles and harriers swooping fast, the panicked swans hiding around, the squatting and howling tigers, the galloping deer and other scenes shown in these patterns are vast and wild.From the perspective of technique, Qiushan jade and Chunshui jade are carved on one side or on both sides, and the whole body is hollowed out and layered.After the Liao and Jin Dynasties, the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties had many imitations of Qiushan Jade and Chunshui Jade. Although the craftsmanship is good, they have no charm, only similar in shape. (Figure 27)

The Yuan Dynasty inherited the Song, Liao, and Jin jade traditions, and the patterns and decorations were mostly flowers and birds, landscapes, tigers, sea animals, etc.; the carving techniques were more mature, especially the use of relief techniques was superb.However, in the production of jade wares in the Yuan Dynasty, there is a phenomenon of neglecting the head and the tail, that is, in the production of some jade wares, the surface parts are finely carved and meticulous; while the sides, inner walls, and bottoms are more sloppy and less refined.If we talk about the unique status of Yuan Dynasty jade wares in China's thousands of years of jade making, jade appreciation and jade playing history, we must mention "Dushan Dayuhai".This work cut in the second year of Zhiyuan (AD 1265) is 70 centimeters high, 135-182 centimeters in diameter, 55 centimeters deep, 493 centimeters in circumference, and weighs 3,500 kilograms. It can be called the first piece of Chinese jade "Heavy weapon".This piece of jade sea is thick in shape and simple in style. It is full of reliefs of various sea animals haunting the turbulent sea. You can see the subtlety in the roughness and the ingenuity in the boldness. "Dushan Mountain Jade Sea" has created a new field of large-scale jade carvings in my country.Its epoch-making significance in the history of jade is proved by several unprecedented large-scale jade carvings in the Qing Dynasty, and also by several large-scale jade (jade) carvings designated as national treasures today. The Ming and Qing Dynasties were another prosperous period for the development of Chinese jade wares.This prosperity is mainly reflected in two aspects: excellent jade making team and wide range of appreciation.Beijing and Suzhou in the Ming and Qing dynasties were the production centers of jade wares, and Zhuanzhu Lane in Suzhou is the most famous.Zhuanzhu Lane not only produces exquisite and ingenious jade wares, but also a place where skilled craftsmen come forth in large numbers.For example, Lu Zigang, a famous jade cutter in the late Ming Dynasty, was well-known in the court and the public. Although the utensils he made were expensive, they were still favored by players.So far, there are many collections of Lu Zigang's works, whether real or fake, in museums and private hands at home and abroad, which shows its influence.The "Hebei Cup" in the Palace Museum in Beijing today was made by Lu Zigang. It is majestic and simple in shape, bold and elegant; and because the cup is also engraved with poems by Zhu Yunming, a famous poet and calligrapher in the Ming Dynasty, this cup is a combination of literature and art. , is indeed a rare treasure handed down from generation to generation.There are many fine jade wares carved by craftsmen in Suzhou during the Qing Dynasty. In terms of high artistry and ingenious conception, "Tongyin Ladies" is none other than "Tongyin Ladies".This work is a Suzhou craftsman in the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty who used the discarded materials left after making bowls. According to the original shape and color of jade materials and the round holes left when taking materials for bowls, they are used in accordance with the materials to create a very rich Jiangnan courtyard. It is a masterpiece of jade carving full of rich scenery and rich flavor of life.Emperor Qianlong was very satisfied with the completion of this vessel, and he wrote a poem to praise it himself.Looking at it today, due to its unique ingenuity, "Tongyin Ladies" cleverly used the white color of Xinjiang white jade and part of the orange-yellow jade skin. A classic yet modern masterpiece.The so-called Ming and Qing jades have a wide range of appreciation and play, which means that the style of playing with jade pervades the court and the people and is represented by the court.In the Ming and Qing dynasties, jade ornaments were very popular. From pendants, strings to ornaments, there are various types and complex combinations.It is also a fashion to use jade as a plaything. Figures, birds, beasts and wishes made of jade have become constant companions for literati and bureaucrats when they talk about scriptures and Taoism, and when they are raised alone in Yanju.The palace of the Ming Dynasty used jade to make a large number of utensils, some for daily use and some for antiques. However, these utensils are not based on practicality, but are more valuable for display and enjoyment.The court of the Qing Dynasty pushed this trend to the extreme, regardless of the fine materials used, the ingenuity of the carving, and the beauty of the shape, all of them were incomparable in the previous dynasties.Among the palace-made jades of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the category of "Yushanzi" cannot but be mentioned.The so-called "Shanzi" refers to the round-carved landscape of mountains and forests, including figures, animals, mountains, trees, stones, flowing springs, etc.This kind of round sculpture can be traced back to the Boshan furnace in the Han Dynasty. The furnace is either copper or pottery, and the upper part (furnace cover) is carved into the shape of mountains and ravines.The development of Yushanzi in the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty was the production of large-scale jade wares with panoramic landscapes, such as the famous "Huichang Jiulao Picture" and "Dayu Water Control Picture".These large Yushanzi are as light as nearly a thousand catties ("Huichang Jiulao Tu") and as heavy as more than ten thousand catties ("Dayu Water Control Map"). Panoramic panorama of landscape and figures.The production and cutting of large Yushanzi in the Qing Dynasty not only required a lot of manpower and material resources, but also a lot of organizational and design work.The cutting of large jade hills based on superb jade cutting skills not only makes the things worn by the body and hands a large-scale ornamental thing, but also draws a successful conclusion for the ancient Chinese jade playing and appreciation.