Chapter 28 Section 2 The Development of Cultural Education in the Late Qing Dynasty and the Early Republic of China

After the Opium War, China experienced the Second Opium War, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, and the invasion of the Eight-Power Allied Forces. The foreign wars failed one after another. The Chinese people witnessed the corruption of Chinese society and the prosperity of the West. ".Among them, there are three different trends of thought and propositions: the Westernization School advocates "Chinese learning as the body, Western learning as the application", learning from the West to save China by building new industries; Establish a constitutional monarchy, develop the national capitalist economy economically, abolish stereotyped scholars culturally, set up schools, run newspapers, and develop capitalist culture; Overthrow the Qing court and establish the Republic of China to save the Chinese nation from peril.

With the emergence of Westernization School, Reform School and Revolutionary School of thought, China's cultural and educational undertakings have developed rapidly, mainly in three aspects: the translation of Western books, the emergence of modern newspapers, and the development of national education. Translating Western books is of great significance for broadening Chinese people's horizons, communicating Chinese and Western cultures, breaking feudal shackles, and propagating new ideas.Since the 16th century, more than 80 missionaries from various countries have translated more than 400 works, most of which are religious books.With the intensification of Western aggression against my country in the 19th century, Chinese intellectuals also began to translate and introduce natural science books and books on philosophy, politics, history and literature.In the 19th year of Daoguang (AD 1839), Lin Zexu began to organize personnel to translate Western books and periodicals in Guangzhou.In the first year of Tongzhi (AD 1862), the Qing government set up the Tongwen Academy in the capital. In the same year, Li Hongzhang opened the Cantonese Dialect Academy in Shanghai, and in the third year of Tongzhi (AD 1864) in Guangzhou.In the sixth year of Tongzhi (AD 1867), Shanghai Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau set up a translation office, specializing in book translation. In 1864, the "Laws of All Nations" translated by the American missionary Martin Martin was published by the Jingshi Tongwen Museum. It is the earliest public international law published in my country.Jingshi Tongwenguan mainly cultivates foreign language talents, and there are not many translators. In 1902, the Jingshi Tongwen Hall was merged into the Jingshi University Hall, during which only 46 works were translated in more than 40 years.The Translation Office of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau has achieved remarkable results.According to the statistics of "Summary of Translations of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau" published in 1909, there were 178 kinds of books translated.This figure was very impressive at the time.The translations are mainly crafts, weapons, ships and natural sciences, and there are also a small number of books on history, geography, law and medicine, among which there are many famous scientific works.Such as the 10-volume "Elements of Geometry", Hou Shile's "Chat", etc.

In the thirteenth year of Guangxu (AD 1887), the British Presbyterian missionary Williamson (Alexander Williamson, AD 1829-1890) established Tongwenshuhui in Shanghai. The largest publishing organization established in China, it advocates "to spread the knowledge of China with the learning of the Western countries, and to spread the old learning of China with the new learning of the Western countries", and publishes a large number of Christian and Western studies. Yan Fu is the most famous in translating Western learning.Yan Fu successively translated Huxley's "Evolution of Heaven", Adam Smith's "Original Wealth", Montesquieu's "Fa Yi", Spencer's "Quan Xue Si Yan" and other books, and published them in the Commercial Press , a more systematic introduction to Western political, economic and social theories.Among them, the main theme of "Tian Yan Lun" is natural selection, survival of the fittest, which greatly shocked the compatriots all over the country.In the process of translation, Yan Fu summed up the principles of honesty, expressiveness and elegance that are still followed by the translation circle.

In addition, the translation of literary and artistic novels has become popular and popular, and famous works from many countries such as Britain, France, the United States, and Russia have been translated and published one after another.Among them, Dumas fils's famous work "La Traviata in Paris" was translated in 1895, and the Chinese translation of "The Black Slave Calls to Heaven" (that is, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" by Stowe in the United States) jointly translated by Lin Shu and Wei Yi in 1901 was published. , resulting in huge social repercussions.The novels translated by Lin Shu relied on other people's dictation and were written in classical Chinese.The language is fluent, vivid and influential.There are 167 books published by him alone, which are very beneficial for Chinese readers to introduce and understand the West in an all-round way.

Some people say that the "Dibao" and "Yuanmenchao" in ancient my country are the harbingers of modern newspapers and periodicals. There are quite a few differences. Modern Chinese newspapers and periodicals can be divided into two categories: one is Chinese and foreign language newspapers and periodicals run by foreigners in China; the other is Chinese newspapers and periodicals run by Chinese themselves. The earliest foreign-language newspaper published by a foreign country in China was A. Abelha da Chine published by the Portuguese in Macau, China, in the second to fourth years of Daoguang (AD 1822-1824).The first English-language newspaper published in China was the Canton Register in 1827.The longest-running and most widely distributed English-language newspaper is "North China Daily News", which was founded in 1850 and was originally called "North China Herald Weekly". It was renamed in 1863 and became Daily, until 1951 did not stop publishing.As for Germany, France, Russia, and Japan, foreign language newspapers and periodicals are published in China.

There are quite a few Chinese newspapers published by foreigners in China. In the seventh year of Xianfeng (AD 1857), Alexan-der Wylie, an Englishman, was the first Chinese magazine to use Chinese characters to print in Shanghai, which was "Shanghai Serial". monthly.In the eleventh year of Xianfeng (AD 1861), the English "Zi Lin Xi Bao" published the Chinese supplement "Shanghai New News".In the seventh year of Tongzhi (AD 1868), the Chinese weekly "China Church News" (that is, "Wanguo Gongbao") was launched.The most famous Chinese newspaper founded by foreigners is the Chinese newspaper "Shenbao" founded by Ernest Major (AD?-1908) in the 11th year of Tongzhi (AD 1872). The literary and artistic monthly "Ying Huan Suo Ji" and the collection of rare editions.In the second year of Guangxu (AD 1876), the popular edition of the supplement "Minbao" was published. In the tenth year of Guangxu (AD 1884), the earliest pictorial magazine "Yinghuan Picture Magazine" in my country and the children's publication "Children's Monthly Magazine" were published.Among the Chinese newspapers and periodicals run by Chinese people, the earliest is "China and Foreign News" founded by Wu Tingfang in Hong Kong in the eighth year of Xianfeng (AD 1858), and in the mainland is "Yangcheng Caixin Shilu" founded in Guangzhou in the eleventh year of Tongzhi (AD 1872) The first three were "Zhaowen Xingang" edited by Ai Xiaomei in Hankou the following year, and "Circular Daily" run by Wang Tao in Hong Kong in the 13th year of Tongzhi (AD 1874).Since then, newspapers such as "Chinese and Foreign Jiwen", "Qiang Xuebao", "Current Affairs News", "Guo Wen Bao" and "Su Bao" have been very influential.The magazines run by Chinese people, such as "Oriental Magazine", "Novel Monthly", "Education Magazine", "Women's Magazine", and "Children's Magazine", are the most influential.

The earliest new-style schools were founded by foreign missionaries.Since the British Morrison School moved from Macau to Hong Kong in 1842, missionaries from various countries have successively established in Ningbo, Shanghai, Fuzhou, Beijing, Dengzhou (the seat of the government is now Penglai, Shandong), Tianjin, Qingzhou (the seat of the government is today Yidu, Shandong), Church schools were established in Hangzhou and other places.From the seventh year of Daoguang to the first year of the Republic of China (AD 1827-1912), the number of students in Christian schools in China increased from 5,975 to 138,937 in 1912.By the 16th year of Guangxu (AD 1890), 84 kinds of textbooks, 50 maps and charts were published, and more than 30,000 copies were sold.

At this time, new-style schools founded by Chinese people also began to appear.The schools run by the Chinese themselves are basically divided into two stages: the early stage (referring to the 19th century) is the period of Westernization education, and mainly opened foreign language schools (namely Tongwenguan), military schools (naval schools) and technology schools (machine schools, telegraph schools) Schools) and other three categories; in the later period (that is, the reform movement and its later period), measures were mainly taken against the academies and imperial examinations at that time. In 1904, the "Zou Ding School Charter" or "Guimao Academic System" was promulgated, and it was implemented nationwide in the form of decrees.From the twenty-ninth year of Guangxu (AD 1903) to the first year of the Republic of China (AD 1912), the number of schools nationwide increased from 719 to 87,272, an increase of 121 times.The number of students increased from 6,943 to 2,933,387, an increase of 422 times.Correspondingly, in July 1906, the Ministry of Government of the Qing Dynasty approved for the first time the provisional bibliographies for elementary schools with 102 titles, which were mainly published by the Commercial Press, Wenming Bookstore and other publishing institutions. In 1912, Gao Mengdan, Zhuang Yu, Tan Lian and others compiled various textbooks for primary and secondary schools and teachers. After being approved by the Ministry of Education, all schools adopted it one after another. It was the first complete set of textbooks in the Republic of China.