Chapter 25 Section 3 Two Opposing Business Thoughts

Views on merchants and commerce in Chinese history are often very different, manifested in the conflict between two ideologies. The first opposition: to restrict private commerce or to allow it to flourish.The anti-business policy is dominated by the idea of ​​restricting private business and developing government-run business.During the Warring States Period, legalists and light and heavy scholars (economists) all revealed this view of emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, which should be included in the ideological system of interventionism in economic thought.This kind of thinking and the policy of suppressing business by the state to intervene in the economy based on it have cracked down on the speculative mergers and acquisitions of rich businessmen and big businessmen, curbed the tendency of peasants to abandon their roots, and played a positive role in stabilizing the small peasant economy and consolidating the emerging feudal landlord system. It has a profound influence on later generations.The so-called "respecting the root and suppressing the end" and "strengthening the root and weakening the end" are all expressions of the thought of emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce.The theory that "wealth and poverty should be taken from above", that is, the state regulates the economy to prevent the excessive development of the private economy from causing serious inequality between the rich and the poor, can be called the "theory of severity".The idea of ​​suppressing business is one of them.Contrary to the emphasis on official business and private business that suppresses business ideas, and the theory of light and heavy theories that make up for what is not enough, the Huang-Lao School of Taoism advocates economic laissez-faire, "the way of the rich and the poor, there is no way to take what you give", and let private freedom develop.The so-called "good people are because of it, secondly guide it, secondly teach it, secondly organize it, and the last one fight with it", this kind of theory can be called "good cause theory".On the grounds of opposing "competing for profit with the people", it is the key point of this kind of thinking and theory to ask the state to withdraw from the industrial and commercial positions and release commerce to private management.Confucianism's theory of "enriching the people" and "spreading Shanze" is also easy to be used by wealthy businessmen who want to make good use of the benefits of the mountains and rivers.The debate between economic intervention and economic laissez-faire is fierce.In the early Western Han Dynasty, the three major interests of salt, iron, and casting money were distributed, and the development of the private economy was condoned. The economic laissez-faire thought had a chance to be practiced for a while.Under this kind of guiding ideology, there is no way to suppress business (suppressing big business).It was not until the time of Emperor Wu that the thought of suppressing business was dominant, and the financier Sang Hongyang was an outstanding theorist of importance; while the "virtuous" and "literature" at the "Salt and Iron Conference" during the reign of Emperor Xuan were a group of unrealistic advocates of economic laissez-faire.

After the Han Dynasty, only a few politicians such as Tang Liuyan had the idea of ​​suppressing business.Liu Yan used commercial management to manage money, vigorously developed government-run commerce, and effectively implemented the salt monopoly system. This was within the scope of economic interventionism, not the same type as economic laissez-faire.However, Liu Yan did not simply emphasize official business and suppress private business, but advocated that while developing official business, he should also pay attention to the legitimate enthusiasm of private business in order to maintain the smooth flow of circulation channels.For example, the farm salt is purchased by the government (wholesale to merchants), and there are government-established "Changping Salt" and storage salt to adjust supply and demand and adjust the price of salt. Transportation, merchants and sales make use of the power of private commerce. This is an idea of ​​"supplementing officials privately, saving money and borrowing strength", rather than engaging in single-channel (official-run) circulation and completely controlling commerce.It not only draws on the operating ability of private businessmen, but also restricts the speculative behavior of businessmen, and has the effect of restraining businessmen (profiteers). This is a two-faced policy for businessmen.Under the condition of maintaining the state's ability to intervene and regulate the economy, and opening up trade freedom to a certain extent and within a certain range, Liu Yan's thoughts are full of innovative significance, and they have an important position in the history of Chinese economic thought.

The commodity economy in the Song Dynasty developed further. "It is difficult to specialize in the prosperity and prosperity, and it must be shared with the subordinates, and then circulate without stagnation." (Ouyang Xiu's "Tongjin Si Shangshu" Chinese language) It is more suitable to use Liu Yan's method to let businessmen intervene to engage in distribution and sales. ; In fact, it is not advisable for the state to fully intervene in the economy.Therefore, Wang Anshi, who has the idea of ​​suppressing business, also said that "the law should not be discussed too much", and the officials "if they try to cast iron, they will have the same disadvantages as the Han Dynasty".However, Wang Anshi still advocates that the state should intervene appropriately in the economy and commercial activities, that is, to develop government-run commerce in other ways—Junshu, Shiyi, and Qingmiao; he still inherits Liu Yan’s thoughts on private commerce, using, restricting, and distinguishing Treat (law-abiding, illegal, large, medium, small).He knows very well that "those who control merchants hate their prosperity, and when they are prosperous, there will be many people who lose their roots (farmers); they hate their decline, and when they decline, goods will not be able to flow." ("Answer to Han Qiuren", Volume 7 of "Collected Works") should be moderately adjusted and not biased. "Make it limited, the size is different."This kind of thinking of combining a certain range of openness (secondary) under the premise of control (primary) is in line with the historical trend of the increasing development of the commodity economy.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties at the end of the feudal society, the concept was updated again.Zhang Juzheng (1525-1582) further opposed the monopolistic commodity monopoly system in which officials and merchants (franchise merchants) shared profits, and proposed that "provincial collection and distribution should be rich in agriculture for investment and business, and lightly closed cities should be rich in business for profits." The slogan of "agriculture" replaced the suppression of business with thick business.But Zhang Juzheng also slandered that "the rich are extravagant, and they are unwilling to do farming. The farmers are not full, and the big businessmen use their surplus to serve the poor." The businessmen he wants to treat favorably are not The profiteers and rich merchants who annexed the land and exploited the peasants were the emerging urban industrialists and businessmen at that time, and their thinking was different from the theory of economic laissez-faire for the rich and powerful.Entering the Qing Dynasty, the idea of ​​suppressing business no longer occupied a place at the top decision-making level.Emperor Qianlong was particularly open-minded.He believes that "probably the affairs of the market should be circulated by the people themselves. Once they are run by the government, they are intended to benefit the people, but they are pursued without coordination and changed to a different style." (Volume 314 of "Gaozong Shilu") Under the guiding ideology of giving freedom to private commerce, government-run commerce no longer developed, commodity monopoly (tea) no longer strengthened, and state intervention no longer expanded.However, the entrusted monopoly (Guangfa) of commodities (salt) from the late Ming Dynasty was a combination of the government and privileged merchants. Although more freedom was given to such merchants, there was no trade freedom for ordinary merchants. On the contrary, it was not as good as Liu Yan The idea of ​​complementarity between government and private (private business without privileges) is more appropriate.From a practical point of view, Liu Yan's thinking is the summary of successful experience.Completely suppressing business, rejecting private business, or simply allowing business and relying on private business have all brought adverse consequences.

The second opposition of business thinking is the problem of light business thinking and business thinking.The idea of ​​light business has a long history.Due to the dominance of the feudal concept of hierarchy and contempt for labor, the society despises the low-status Jia people and those who actually engage in commercial labor.Legalism and Confucianism have a consistent position on this point.With the one-sided development of the post-Confucian thought of "righteousness first" represented by Dong Zhongshu, the first ("first") has become the only one. The rhetoric of "regarding friendship and not seeking profit" is rampant.The scholar-bureaucrats are interested in profit, but they are ashamed to talk about the breeding of goods and deny the profit; doing business is said to be a dirty thing and a filthy place.Light business thinking has added a new layer of content.Different from the policy significance of the thought of suppressing business, the thought of lightening business has more the color of feudal ethics.The idea of ​​suppressing business only intermittently affects real life together with the policy of suppressing business in a short period of time; while the idea of ​​lightening business pervades Chinese feudal society for a long time, forming a trend that makes small and medium-sized businessmen and commercial workers be suppressed. It's light and cheap, and it can't stand up for a long time.Its influence is more far-reaching and extensive than the idea of ​​suppressing business that is not conducive to wealthy businessmen.Lighting business and suppressing business, two kinds of thoughts and two objects are not the same thing, so they cannot be compared.

Opposite to the mercantile thinking is the mercantile thinking.Emphasis on commerce is first of all an emphasis on the commercial industry and a full understanding of the objective functions of commerce.It goes without saying that the country emphasizes commerce in the days when the industry and commerce are official and the commerce is government-operated. Even when the idea of ​​suppressing commerce is flourishing, the policy makers and advocates of suppressing commerce do not deny or underestimate the role of commerce as an industry.Even Shang Yang, who fully implemented the policy of restraining business, had relatively weak commodity awareness, and was too inclined to agriculture (Shang Yang closed the trade of grain fairs, implemented a large-scale free ration "lin [lin] food" system; did not pay attention to the casting of currency), In the face of the facts, we have to admit that "farmers open up land, and merchants produce things", "the three of them are farmers, merchants and officials, and the country's constant food officials", "the poor farmers, poor merchants, and poor officials must be cut" ("Shang Jun Shu· Weak people, get rid of the strong").Shang Yang ever canceled commerce, and unified weights and measures on the contrary, so as to facilitate the normal commodity exchange, that is what he presided over.Xunzi, a reformer of Confucianism with a strong thought of suppressing business, advocated "saving the number of merchants" while advocating the development of normal commodity circulation.He believes that "the law of the king", one of which is "to circulate property and corn without any retention"; "separate the goods and sell them" is a necessary social division of labor, and the understanding of business has improved ("Xunzi·Fuguo, Wangzhi, "Wang Ba").Sang Hongyang, the financial minister of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, while promoting the policy of suppressing business, vigorously promoted the view of the economic function of business, which can be described as a clear-cut stand.He took the lead in putting forward the slogan of "agricultural and commercial transactions, benefiting the basics and the end", and advocated "opening the way of the basics and the end, making use of what is needed" so that "agricultural, commercial, industrial and industrial personnel can get what they want".His subordinate officials also said that the result of Dr. Sang's (Hongyang) planning and calculation was that "the people are not tired, and both the cause and the end are beneficial" ("Yalt and Iron Theory · General You, This Discussion, Severity").It is a new development that is different from the traditional idea of ​​emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce. "Using business (government business) to control business (private business), focusing on the capital (agriculture) and ordering the end (rectifying private business)" is to restrain business (private business) in emphasizing business (through government-run business to play a commercial role), It is the characteristic of Sang Hongyang's thought.Separate commerce from merchants, suppress merchants, and attach importance to commerce. "A person can be very cheap, but his career cannot be abandoned" (Jin Fu Xuanyu), and the contradictions of suppressing commerce (restraining the influence of merchants) and emphasizing commerce (emphasizing the role of commerce) can be unified , can exist in one person at the same time.

Wang Fu in the intellectual circle at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty further put forward the saying that farmers and merchants have their own roots and ends: "Merchants take currency as their foundation and vends as their end" ("Qianfu Lun · Wuben"), which is also a theory of equal emphasis on agriculture and commerce. , which is a direct negation of Han Fei's theory of "agriculture-based business and end-of-business". (The "mo" mentioned by Shang Yang refers to the production and trade of luxury goods, as well as the unapproved abandonment of agriculture for business, rather than general commerce. The "mo" refers to the beginning of business in Han Fei.) The Ming Dynasty advocated benefiting agriculture and promoting business Zhang Juzheng's intention to emphasize business is beyond words.He said: "Business can't communicate with others to benefit farmers, and agriculture will suffer; if farmers can't do their best to capitalize on business, business will suffer. Therefore, the power of merchants and farmers is always a trade-off." Discussing Jun and Returning to the Dynasty Preface) thoroughly expounded the thought of paying equal attention to agriculture and commerce. The policy of emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce in the Qin and Han dynasties, and the discussion salt that was the main content of suppressing commerce in the Han Dynasty, cannot be approved by him.Huang Zongxi, a great thinker in the early Qing Dynasty, also said that "businesses and businesses have their own roots and ends", echoing Wang Fu.Tang Zhen, a thinker who used to be a businessman and a native of Yale, used his personal experience to promote the principle of equal emphasis on agriculture and commerce, emphasizing that "farmers enjoy their work, food and clothing grow", "farmers are safe in the fields, and Jia is safe in the city", so that financial resources can be sufficient, otherwise The country must be impoverished ("Hidden Book · Charitable · Thick Book").

Since the middle period of feudal society, some people's mercantile thoughts have shifted from emphasizing the functions of commerce to emphasizing merchants (not referring to small and medium-sized merchants).For example, the Yongjia School in the Southern Song Dynasty advocated utilitarianism and openly defended enriching the people.Its representative, Chen Liang (1143-1194 A.D.), believed that the prosperity of businessmen can be the economic backing of the country. If "the rich do not have five years of accumulation, and the big businessmen do not have a huge collection of ten thousand", "the country will be increasingly impoverished." ("Shang Xiaozong Emperor Book").There is also Ye Shi (1150-1223 A.D.), who believed that suppressing the end is "non-orthodox theory" and that suppressing and consolidating is not a good policy. "The foundation of the prefecture and county is the foundation of the upper and lower levels" ("Shui Xin Bie Ji Volume 2: Financial Planning and Civil Affairs").This kind of mercantile thought, which emphasized businessmen, reflected the interests and requirements of industrial and commercial people who were developing in the southeast region at that time and wanted to reduce business taxes and operate freely.Wang Fuzhi, one of the "Three Great Masters" in the early Qing Dynasty, also declared that "the great merchants and rich people are the rulers of the country", and pointed out that "by punishing Mohist officials and helping the people, the country can rest in peace" ("Huang Shu").However, the rich people and big businessmen he respects do not refer to those "prostitute businessmen" and profiteers who are engaged in mergers ("big gatherings") to serve the feudal rulers' sensual games. These people are exactly what he opposes; thinkers are interested in , pinning their hopes on the emerging industrial and commercial people associated with the new economic relations (the sprouts of capitalism), this class was the progressive force at that time.Therefore, the idea of ​​mercantilism that conforms to the historical trend and clamors for it has its positive significance and enlightenment effect.During the Daoguang period of Jiaqing, Wei Yuan opposed "suppressing the end" and valued the idea of ​​commerce (putting forward the slogan of "slowing the root and rushing to bid", which refers to commerce), and Bao Shichen's idea of ​​"no business, no supply" and "wealth at the end". Speech is also inspired and influenced by its pioneers.