Chapter 19 Section 3 During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, national trade was booming, and foreign trade was full of twists and turns.

The situation of national unification in the Ming Dynasty was relatively stable, and the trade between the Central Plains and the frontiers developed day by day.The most famous is the "tea market" in the Tibetan area in the same west.The Ming government set up tea and horse departments in some places in today's Gansu, Qinghai, and western Sichuan, and exchanged tea for Tibetan horses.The exchange market is mostly held in summer, and the market period lasts for one month.In the Northeast (Beizhen (formerly Guangning), Kaiyuan, Liaoning Province) and Shanxi (Datong) borders, the Ming government set up mutual markets to trade with the Mongolians.The Mongolian people traded horses, cattle, sheep, fur, and wood for cotton cloth, silk satin, agricultural tools, iron pots, and grain in the interior; because horses are the main commodity in the mutual market, it is called "horse market".The exchange market takes place once or twice a month for several consecutive days.First official city, later civilian city, private transactions are also prosperous.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Jurchen tribe rose, and the Ming government set up trading places in Kaiyuan, Fushun and other places, where they traded every day or every other day, and the number of people often reached several hundred.In the Ming Dynasty, cloth, silk, satin, salt, rice, iron pots, farm tools, and cattle were exchanged for Jurchen horses, ginseng, pearls, and mink fur.In particular, the ginseng trade and the Jurchen tribe are even more at stake. Nurhaci (Taizu of the Qing Dynasty) united the Jurchen tribes and became stronger and stronger under the condition of defending the common interests of the growing ginseng trade.

The territory of the Qing (early period) expanded, and political unification promoted the economic ties among various ethnic groups, and the trade between the frontier and the Central Plains was more active than ever before.The border trade in the market has been replaced by the direct exchange of merchants of various ethnic groups. Many merchants of the Han nationality went to Mongolia to do business. The Shanxi gang was the most important, and they were called "traveling Mongolian merchants". Fur, wood, livestock, salinity and other local products.Hohhot and Zhangjiakou were the central cities of Han and Mongolian people's trade at that time.There are also businessmen from Mongolia in Beijing.

In the Northwest, most of the Han merchants traveling back and forth to do business in Xinjiang were concentrated in cities such as Yarkand.The famous Hotan silk and jade wares, the leather, tapestry, and silk carpets of Yarkand and Kashgar are all exquisite handicrafts loved by the people of the Central Plains; steel, copper and tin wares cannot be produced by the local Uyghur people, but rely on Han merchants entered.The Kazakhs in northern Xinjiang trade fur and leather with the Uyghur, Mongolian and Han peoples in Urumqi, Yili and other places. Tibetan handicrafts, horses and furs, medicinal materials (antler, musk, cordyceps, fritillary, safflower, etc.) and other local specialties are often used to exchange tea, silk and cotton products with Han merchants.Dajianlu, Xining and other places were the concentrated places of regular trade at that time.Chuanbian trade is dominated by "merchants who sell cattle, wool and leather and buy and exchange tea."

The Northeast is the birthplace of the Manchu (formerly Jurchen).After entering the Qing Dynasty, farmland expanded and production developed. Beans and wheat outside the customs were sold to the inside of the customs. Cotton cloth, tea and various southern goods in the customs were transported to the northeast by sand ships that transported beans and wheat.When Han merchants went to the Northeast, they first infiltrated the countryside in the form of grocers. Later, they accumulated money and started to operate handicraft industries, such as making sorghum wine and pressing soybean oil. The Miao, Yi, Zhuang, and Yao peoples in the southwest, the Li people in Hainan, and the Gaoshan people in Taiwan all traded with Han merchants on the rise after entering the Qing Dynasty.

The intensification of trade among people of various nationalities is of certain benefit to the advancement of production in the frontiers and the economic development of the regions of various nationalities.It is true that merchants also engage in unequal exchanges, which are sometimes very serious, but objectively speaking, the positive role of ethnic trade is still important and cannot be denied. While the national trade was developing greatly in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, what about the situation of foreign trade? Since the beginning of Ming Dynasty, the pirates from Japan harassed the coast, Fang Guozhen and Zhang Shicheng fled overseas, and Chang Si made a comeback.The turmoil in the sea and territory prompted Zhu Yuanzhang to implement a sea ban policy, strictly prohibiting domestic merchants from going to sea for trade, and established a system of rewards for reporting. The only overseas trade was carried out in the form of "reconnaissance and cooperation trade" (formerly known as tribute trade).Cooperative trade is to stipulate the number of years, distance, time and place of residence and stay, the number of ships and the number of entourages for some countries with diplomatic relations.It is also necessary to check the "research and cooperation" (letter symbol gold medal) issued by the Ming government, and those who do not have a reconciliation and cooperation will be refused entry.The Shipping Departments of Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Ningbo respectively received ships from designated countries, inspected the goods, and escorted the envoys to stay in the "Huitongguan" in Nanjing (the capital at that time).It is actually a kind of official trade; the government also buys the attached goods at a price, and the remaining part can be opened in the Huitong Hall for three to five days, under the supervision of officials, Trade with the people under the official tooth organization.But they are not allowed to "sneak into other people's houses to trade" and entrust people to buy prohibited items.This kind of practice of no tax, no points, high price, generous rewards, a lot of discounts, and strict restrictions is very different from the market ship system and the policy of attracting ships in the Song and Yuan Dynasties.It was a great economic burden for the Ming government.

The consolidation of domestic rule and the development of the economy during the Yongle period prompted the rulers to exchange the commodities produced in large quantities overseas for rare treasures, and the developing folk handicraft industry also required to open up a wide range of overseas markets.In fact, it is impossible to ban private sea trade. It is better to bring it into the track of government trade.So Ming Chengzu took a proactive stance to develop overseas trade operated by the government.In addition to setting up posthouses for foreign guests, Zheng He’s voyage to the “Western Ocean” took place (at that time, the vast area from the west of South Borneo to the east of Africa was called the Western Ocean, and the area east of Borneo was called the Eastern Ocean).Zheng He’s voyages to the West were very powerful. He set sail for the first time in the third year of Yongle (AD 1405), leading an entourage of more than 27,500 people (in addition to government officials and soldiers, coastal merchants, boat households, fishermen, etc. were also organized) , A huge fleet of 62 "treasure ships" headed for the sea.The largest ship was 44 feet long and 18 feet wide, which was the largest in the world at that time.The ship was loaded with porcelain, bronze, lacquerware, gold, silver, printed cloth and valuable silk fabrics. It traveled through Champa, Java, Managa, Sumatra, and Ceylon to Guri on the west coast of India, and then returned.Everywhere they went, the goods they brought were exchanged for local specialties (spices, dyes, treasures, exotic animals), and all the countries they visited sent envoys to China to repair trade.During the next 28 years, Zheng He made another six (or seven) voyages, visiting more than 30 countries in total, reaching Java in the south, the west coast of Africa in the west, and Aden in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea in the north, as well as Mecca.Zheng He's voyages pushed the foreign trade of the Ming Dynasty to a peak, promoted the growth of domestic handicraft production, especially in coastal areas, and strengthened the economic and cultural ties between the Chinese people and other countries, especially people in Southeast Asia.

After Yingzong (Orthodoxy), the Ming Dynasty became more and more corrupt, and the country's situation turned into decline. It no longer had the financial resources to engage in expensive overseas operations. The expanded exploration and cooperation trade in Yongle went downhill.On the other hand, since Yongle, many people have gone to sea with ships, and they have become familiar with the sea lanes. Private overseas trade has become increasingly active, and private ships from foreign countries that have not been surveyed and cooperated are also increasing.In the face of such changes, the faction within the ruling group that advocates opening up the sea ban has gradually gained the upper hand. They advocate simply recognizing the legal status of private sea trade and non-tribute ships before the fait accompli, and extracting taxes from them to solve financial difficulties, especially local finances.In the twelfth year of Zhengde (AD 1517), it was officially determined to draw 2/10 points, and the sea ban has been opened virtually.

But it didn’t take long. Due to the Japanese pirates invading the southeast coastal areas and the Portuguese colluding with the Japanese pirates to plunder the coast and occupy Macau, the rulers of Jiajing and Ming Dynasty strengthened the sea ban, blocked Guangzhou and completely prohibited the entry and exit of sea ships. The decline of overseas trade reached its lowest point. . During the Longqing period, with the pacification of the Japanese Rebellion, calls for the opening of the sea ban rose again.The Ming government decided to acquiesce in private sea trade in order to collect commercial taxes and increase income.At that time, the "quote ticket" system was implemented for domestic businessmen, under the control of coastal defense officials, and soldiers inspected and inspected the ticket.Leading tickets need to pay "leading tax", and pay "water rate" (paid by ship merchants according to the size of the ship) and "land rate" (paid by merchants according to the size of the imported goods) when returning to the voyage.The merchant ships returning from Luzon brought less goods and more silver coins, so they had to pay "increased rates".After the foreign merchants arrive, they are still under the management of the city ship (there is no distinction between the tribute ship and the city ship at this time), and the points are still drawn, and the water and land rates are levied on them.After the opening of the sea ban, "the merchants of the five directions, the Xixi water country, ... the money traded, there are hundreds of thousands of years old" ("Preface to the Study of the East and the West"); There are many county merchants and people who sell things from east to west to replace farmers and merchants" ("The Book of Diseases of the World's Commanderies and Countries").The customs revenue in the Fujian area reached 50,000 to 60,000 taels a year by the time of Chongzhen.

However, during this period, the overseas trade activities of Chinese merchants were subject to new restrictions from outside.European pirates came to the east (Portugal, followed by Spain and the Netherlands) and occupied Nanyang, and the trade between China and Nanyang was monopolized by them.Chinese businessmen and expatriates who went to Nanyang were abused and massacred, their businesses were strictly controlled and they had to pay heavy taxes; it was only because of the hard struggle of Chinese merchants that the trade relations between China and all parts of Nanyang continued under extremely difficult conditions.

In the early Qing Dynasty, because of Zheng Chenggong's anti-Qing activities, he repeated the policy of implementing the sea ban in the early Ming Dynasty, and it went too far.Those who went to sea without permission were executed, and the magistrate was dismissed.Except for the prohibition of smuggling, Sino-foreign trade can only be carried out by land through Macau, which was occupied by the Portuguese.Local goods are stagnant, and most of the people on the coast are unemployed.With the return of Taiwan, Emperor Kangxi opened the sea ban, allowing domestic merchants to trade at sea under certain conditions.If the boat is limited to less than 500 shi, it must be environmentally friendly first, and it must be approved by the state and county.Foreign businessmen conduct business at designated ports, namely Shanghai, Ningbo, Quanzhou, and Guangzhou, with four customs offices in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Guangzhou.On the land route, it signed the "Nerchinsk Treaty" with Imperial Russia to carry out trade exchanges.At that time, merchants and ships were handed over to the four provinces. There are also a lot of foreign goods in the "Grand View Garden", such as foreign cigarettes, foreign wool, gold watches, wall clocks, Persian toys and so on.

In the 20th year of Qianlong (AD 1755), the British resisted the Qing government's foreign trade management (business protection system) and insisted on bypassing Guangzhou and conducting trade in Ningbo.For this reason, two years later, in the 22nd year of Qianlong (AD 1757), the Qing government decided to cancel the three treaty ports between Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Fujian and Western merchants, and only keep one in Guangzhou, that is, changing the four-port trade into one trade port.However, after the opening of trade, Western merchant ships to China not only did not decrease, but increased.After the 22nd year of Qianlong, the total trade value of the four customs offices in the 80 years before the 22nd year of Qianlong has been continuously increasing.Facts show that the one-port trade did not hinder the development of foreign trade.What's more, twenty-two years after Qianlong, the large and small ports along the coast of Guangdong, Ningbo, Xiamen and other ports still allowed trade to the Southeast Asia, and sometimes Spanish ships from Luzon were allowed to enter the port (Xiamen), without any restrictions. In the Qing Dynasty, the Customs replaced the former Maritime Bureau to manage foreign trade and was in charge of tax collection and inspection, and the actual affairs were handled by the government-established dental office.The Thirteen Banks in Guangdong was such a dental firm (later it also operated business), which was privileged by the government to act as an agent of foreign trade for the country; its main business was to pay customs duties (including goods tax and shipping materials) for foreign businessmen. Heguili (customs officials need to ask for it); export goods from the mainland as an agent, underwrite foreign imports; government orders and foreign business reports are all submitted by his subordinates.Shisanhang builds commercial halls, leases them to foreign businessmen, and manages them. Foreign parties must introduce all kinds of personnel through Thirteenhang.The common organization of the thirteen lines is called the public line.Except for small commodities such as fans, lacquerware, embroidery, and paintings, which can be traded with foreign merchants outside the company, the trade in tea silk and various bulk commodities is monopolized by the company; the sale of goods on foreign merchant ships must first Contact with a public bank, and cannot conduct private transactions directly (for example, when a foreign businessman chooses a certain merchant as the transaction partner, half of the goods must still be distributed to the members of the public bank).The price of imported and exported commodities is assessed by the public bank; 3% of the public bank's open price is "commission", and there are actually hidden deductions.There is also a "guarantee business" system (founded in 1745) between Hong merchants and foreign businessmen. The Governor-General appoints a number of merchants from Yin Shixing as the guarantor for foreign businessmen, and foreign businessmen must find one of them as a guarantee.The insurer is fully responsible for the taxes payable by the ship, and is fully responsible for the actions of the people on board. The ship will give some remuneration, and the insurer has the priority to trade the insured goods. Advance payment or compensation on behalf of others.The monopoly nature of foreign trade has become stronger and stronger, from general merchants in the nature of dental firms to public banks and insurance merchants who arrange foreign affairs. Foreign businessmen were dissatisfied with the Qing government’s management of them through the public bank and insurance merchants, and they had been trying to get rid of the control; more importantly, China’s tea, silk, porcelain, medicinal materials, and sugar were exported in large quantities, but there were not many foreign commodities needed. In addition to importing luxury goods such as cotton, glass, spices, treasures, and watches, the huge trade surplus forced foreign businessmen to pay with large amounts of silver dollars.British capitalists tried to sell woolen goods, foreign yarn and foreign cloth in China, but they were in vain due to lack of sales.In order to reverse the trade disadvantage, the British bourgeoisie shamelessly chose opium as a drug and smuggled and dumped it into China.In the 41 years from 1798 to 1839, the CCP imported more than 430,000 boxes, worth about more than 400 million silver dollars. As a result, China changed from exporting to importing, and the export of tea and silk was not worth the value of opium imports. Social poverty and great harm to the physical and mental health of the Chinese people. Since the opium trade also threatened the rule of the Qing government ("ten years later, there will be no salary and no soldiers"), Emperor Daoguang sent Lin Zexu as an imperial envoy to Guangdong to ban smoking. On June 3, 1839, Lin Zexu destroyed 20,200 boxes of opium that were forced to be confiscated by British and American opium dealers in Humen.In order to maintain its illegal drug trade, the British government sent an expeditionary force to invade China and launched the Opium War (1840-1842 AD).The Opium War ended in failure on the Chinese side due to the corruption of the Qing court and the sabotage of the capitulators.Since then, China has gradually become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.China's business also began to set foot on the modern mileage. The Qing government supervised and managed foreign trade through the customs; it guarded against and restricted the coveting of foreign invaders, and cracked down on and investigated the smuggling of opium drugs. This was originally a legitimate national self-defense action of a sovereign state. China is not to blame.However, the foreign trade of the Qing government was indeed more restrictive than encouraging.The ruler who was good at riding and archery adopted a policy of passive coastal defense in the face of the European pirates coming from the east. It was indeed far inferior to the active defense and aggressiveness of the opening to the outside world during the Han, Tang and Ming Yongle periods.Generally speaking, the Qing Dynasty was indeed introverted, and the rulers "had a special aversion to new things, and were particularly stubborn on old practices" (Fan Wenlan: "Modern Chinese History", Volume 1, p. 89).In order to maintain the rule of a small number of Manchu nobles over the majority of the people, they do not want the people to contact with foreigners, so as not to arouse feelings of anti-fullness, resulting in very few people who can look at the world and understand the situation.In addition, the nobles of the Eight Banners are becoming increasingly corrupt, and they are not worthy of being competent gatekeepers in front of the solemn gate of the country, so it is not without reason that they are passively beaten.