Chapter 10 Section 3 Urban Commerce and Rural Commerce

The prosperity of commerce is first of all the prosperity of the city, which has been the most important symbol of commercial development from the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty. In the Western Han Dynasty, there were six major commercial cities in the country: Chang'an, the capital, was the center of domestic commerce and trade with the Western Regions; Linzi was the metropolis and the center of commerce and textile industry in the Qilu region, with a population larger than Chang'an (100,000 households); There is a tradition of doing business; the largest commercial center in Hedong and Hanoi is Handan, which is "the crown of wealth in the country"; Nanyang (Wan) has a well-developed iron smelting industry, with "many businesses"; Chengdu is the export of salt, iron, cloth and other products in Bashu throat.There are more than a dozen medium-sized cities below the six major cities.In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the capital moved to Luoyang.During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Chang'an and Luoyang were abolished one after another. It was not until the Sui and Tang Dynasties that Chang'an and Luoyang regained prosperity and became the capital and accompanying capital of the whole country.In the Tang Dynasty, Jingzhao County had a total of more than 360,000 households, with a population twice that of Chang'an, Xijing in the Han Dynasty. It was the largest center of commerce and trade with the Western Regions.Luoyang, the eastern capital, is the hub of material exchange between the north and the south, where the water boats gather.In the early Tang Dynasty, there were so-called "Six Heroes" and "Ten Wangs" in the north. Bianzhou (Kaifeng) beside the canal was one of the "Six Heroes".While the northern commerce is in the leading position, the commercial cities in the south also have considerable development, such as Yangzhou, Chuzhou, Suzhou, Ezhou (Wuchang), Shengzhou (Nanjing), Hangzhou, Yuezhou (Shaoxing), Guangzhou and other places. Sheng in the past.In the late Tang Dynasty, with the further development of the southern economy, there were more states and counties with about 100,000 households in the south.For example, the number of households in Yuan and Shi in Suzhou and Hangzhou reached 100,000 each, which was 1/4 and nearly 50% higher than that in Kaiyuan respectively.The most prominent is Yangzhou, which has risen to the first large commercial city in the country, "merchants are like weaving", "the wealth is the best in the world"; due to the passage of water transport, Jianghuai, Jinghu and Lingnan products are distributed here.Yangzhou itself has a well-developed handicraft industry, and the salt and iron transshipment office is set up here, and the sea salt trade is centered on this, so its business development is very fast. See "Yudi Ji Sheng" quoted), the reputation of "promoting one and benefiting two" is not empty (Yi is Chengdu).The rapid development of commerce in southern cities reflects the historical process of the gradual southward shift of China's economic center of gravity.

Since ancient times, the system of separating squares (residential districts) and cities (commercial districts) has been maintained throughout the Han and Tang Dynasties.There were nine cities in Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty, six cities were in Daoxi-Xishi, and three cities were in Daodong-Dongshi.In each city, there are "city buildings with heavy houses", which are the places where the city officials (called "city orders") work and "inspect merchants to buy and sell goods". Flags are placed on them, so it is also called "Qiting Building".There is a wall around the city, which is separated from the residential area (called Li in Chinese), and transactions can only be carried out in the city.The city gate is guarded and opened and closed on time.In order to make it easier for customers to purchase and government inspection, the stores in the city are arranged according to the type of goods.Those who deal in the same kind of goods are lined up row upon row, called "column", "four", "ci", "column", "market", and "shi column". At this time, the same kind of goods are displayed in the same row, which is called "column". A si, si does not mean a shop. Even hawkers classify and set up stalls while sitting. There is a "Willow Market" in the West City of Chang'an, which is a market for wicker weaving; the "Wine Market" in the East City, It is the market row for wine sales. The sidewalks between the shops are called "tunnels". Ban Gu wrote in "Fu of Two Capitals" that "the nine markets open, and the goods are divided into tunnels. People can't care about them, and cars can't turn around." It refers to the crowded shopping and trading scene in Chang'an City according to commodities (it was still the case in the Eastern Han Dynasty). The houses and mats in the city row are all set up by the government, and all businessmen who use these facilities to do business in the city must Register with the government, be listed as "city registration" and pay "city rent". Other large and medium-sized cities also have "city" like Chang'an, such as Wan City, Luoyang City, Linzi City, Chengdu City, Wujun City, Pingyang City, etc. There are also "cities" in county towns, but the scale is small (the market may not be opened every day). There are also "military markets" in the garrison. Due to the development of commerce, the annual closing market rent is as high as a thousand dollars.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, large-scale transactions in the city, such as buying and selling slaves, horses and cattle, fields and houses, and timber, required paper coupons.In addition to the market closing tax and customs tax, the South also collects "assessment tax" on transactions.Those who have certificates pay a tax of 400 per 10,000 yuan, the seller pays 300, and the buyer pays 100, which is called "lose valuation"; small transactions without paper certificates also pay a tax of 4% of the price, which is called "loose valuation".Lose estimates to set a precedent for deed tax in later generations (later, but the buyer has to pay).The tax package system in Chinese history has also been implemented in customs, cities, and tax assessments since the Southern Dynasties. "Institutional tax collection", people competed to increase the contracted tax amount to seek this fat vacancy, to replace others, and after taking office, they "operated for private savings", increased taxes arbitrarily, and oppressed business people.The impact of this system is very bad.

The Northern Dynasties still implemented the city system.After the capital was moved to Luoyang in the Northern Wei Dynasty, the business was vigorously managed and the business resumed prosperity.There are six cities in Luoyang (only three in the Jin Dynasty), and Dashi and Sitong are the most lively.There are a total of eight miles around the big city, and there are a variety of goods in the city; Sitong City is next to Yishui and Luoshui, and its scale is as magnificent as that of the big city. There are "more delicious fish than sold here". more expensive than cattle and sheep".Outside the city is the residential area - Li. There are 10 li around the big city, named "Tongshang", "Dahuo", "Tuning", "Music Law", "Yanjiao", "Zhishang", "Compassion and Filial Piety". ", "Fengzhong", "Zhuncai", "Jinsi", "all the people who have more than ten miles of industrial and commercial colonization", the industrial and commercial people live close to the city, and the commuting road is short, which is convenient for trade; It is convenient to exchange experience in the industry and improve the level of business technology (for the above, please refer to Volume 4 of "Luoyang Jialan Ji").This is a more reasonable layout.

Chang'an, the capital of the Sui Dynasty, had 74 squares in the city and two cities (each occupying an area equivalent to two squares).The city in the east was called "Dongshi City" and was called Dongshi in Tang Dynasty; the city in the west was called "Liren City" and was called West City in Tang Dynasty.In the Tang Dynasty, the cities with the eastern and western capitals were called "cities", and the cities with prefectures and counties were called "states, counties and cities".The trading hours in the city are fixed. Every day at noon, the Municipal Department beats the drums to open the market, and in the evening, it beats the drums to scatter the market and closes the market gate.The government formulated a set of more stringent market regulations than in the past, stipulating: Commodities are priced in three grades, and the valuation is done every ten days; every August, merchants have to go to the government to calibrate their measuring instruments; Selling is only allowed if the name is engraved on it; textiles must meet the quality and size standards; merchants are prohibited from manipulating prices, manipulating sales, and disrupting normal transactions;Shops dealing in similar commodities are still concentrated in the same block and cannot be mixed together. The blocks of shops of the same trade are called "lines" (equivalent to column, line, time, and four in Han Dynasty), and the word "line" of various industries comes from this. The word "Xing" in the same industry block is quoted.There are 220 shops in Chang'an East City, including meat shops, iron shops, silk shops, crepe brocade shops, autumn bridle shops, scale shops, fish shops, medicine shops, candle shops, etc. Gold Bank etc.In the Han Dynasty, there were no more than 30 types of commodities in the big cities. The large number of listings in the Tang Dynasty indicated that the variety of commodities increased greatly compared with before.The character "四" in the Han Dynasty has become a retail outlet in the Tang Dynasty—meaning a shop, and each line includes several, a dozen or even dozens of shops.A fire in Chang'an East City burned 24 buildings and more than 4,000 shops.There are more than 3,000 shops in 120 lines in Luoyang South City.Many establishments in the same line form an organization, also known as "line". The members of each line are called "pedestrians" and "bank households". To pay taxes and negotiate other matters, the government controls all walks of life through them.

The mansion and shop industry, which flourished during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, was more developed in the Tang Dynasty.There are 141 Didians in Datong, Luoyang, and 312 in Nanshi.Didians are located around the city, with houses inside, where foreign merchants live, and warehouses to store goods.A large number of wholesale transactions are carried out here. The mansion shop may be opened by bureaucrats and noble relatives. Shopkeepers run errands and step in to rate prices and introduce customers. The regulation prohibiting business outside the city had a slight breakthrough in the Tang Dynasty.In the early Tang Dynasty, there were already people selling all kinds of food in Chang'an Zhuque Street in the morning for business trips and palace purchases.In the late Tang Dynasty, in the workshops (formerly known as "li") in neighboring cities, more and more shops were opened by craftsmen themselves, such as the musical instrument shop in Chongrenfang, the felt music shop in Jinggongfang, and the colored silk shop in Xuanyangfang. , the gold, silver and jade shops in Yanshoufang; in ancient times, there were not many shops in the front and factories in the back, which had a greater development in Tang Dynasty.There are also small shops selling daily necessities and restaurants selling cakes, wontons, and pilafs in the workshops; in the winemaking workshops, the wine flags are connected and sell fine wine; some workshops also have "tea shops".In the late Tang Dynasty, the market was scattered in the evening and the restrictions on the city gate closing had been opened.There are night markets in the bustling big cities and even in some cities, especially in Yangzhou, where the night markets are more prosperous.Wang Jianshi: "Thousands of lights in the night market illuminate the blue clouds, and there are many people with red sleeves in high-rise buildings", which describes the grand occasion of Yangzhou night market.There are shops on the street, and there are businesses in the square, and the business is done at night, which means that the ancient city system has begun to loosen in the Tang Dynasty.This is the inevitable result of urban commercial development.

While urban commerce developed, commerce also gradually extended to the countryside.In the Han Dynasty, there was a kind of regular market in small towns below the county level. For example, Fengyi, the hometown of Gaozu, had butchers, wine, cakes and other transactions. During the transactions, there were cockfights and Cuju for entertainment.In the Eastern Han Dynasty, small cities with regular markets were called Shiyi, and there were "tens of thousands of cities" in the whole country.Going to places farther away from the township pavilions, some also set up "meeting markets", where you can buy delicious wine and fragrant meat.During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, a fixed market was formed on the main traffic road outside the city where transactions were frequent, called "grass market".This kind of grass market came into being spontaneously and was not established by the government.It may have been a place for farmers to sell fodder and buy daily necessities at first, and it has become a market over time.At first, the pavement of the house was covered with grass, but it was later that the house was changed to a brick and wood structure.

In the early Tang Dynasty, there were no formal cities managed by city officials and small counties with less than 3,000 households in the early Tang Dynasty. There were only regular markets. Due to the development of rural commerce in the late Tang Dynasty, the "main roads" with less than 3,000 households became "traffic". The localities also allowed the establishment of formal markets. Even in places where there were no cities, grass markets and markets named after market markets, Hai markets, and Geng markets were more developed than before.The grass market is located in the outskirts of the city or in Hejin Ferry, where post stations are located, and in densely populated small towns.Some grass markets have already traded on a large scale. On the day of the market, "tens of thousands of merchants and travelers arrived with their goods, and there were all precious toys, and all the utensils that were useful" ("Wenyuan Yinghua" volume 808, about Pengzhou Tang Dynasty Chang County Established Grass Market); in order to facilitate business travel, there are also hostels and hotels on the grass market.The grass market in the Jianghuai area "is as close as possible to the water, rich and powerful households mostly live in it" (Vol.The bazaar is the name of Jingnan and Lingnan for the rural market. It originated very early, and there were more in the Tang Dynasty. It was deeper into the countryside than the grass market, but the scale was small. It was mainly for farmers to sell surplus rice, fruit, vegetables, fish and poultry or household handicraft products. In exchange for some goods that cannot be produced locally or that are required for taxation.Liu Zongyuan's poem: "Green bamboo wrapped in salt and returned to Dongke, and green purse wrapped in rice to take advantage of the people in the market", which is a portrayal of the scene of farmers in Guangxi taking advantage of the market.During the harvest season or major festivals, the person in charge of the market will gather merchants and arrange recreational activities in advance. "Haishi" is the name of the rural market in Bashu, and the market day is stipulated according to the name of the earthly branch of Yinsi Shenhai (one city every three days); For "meeting", "field" or set field and the like.In some places, there is also a market held in a certain farming season, such as the silkworm market in Bashu.The development of rural commercial models such as grass markets and bazaars is another important sign of commercial progress in feudal society.