Chapter 35 Part One The Godfathers Chapter One The Religious Development of the Jews

The Christianity transmitted to the barbarians of the late Roman Empire consisted of three elements: first, some philosophical beliefs, mainly from Plato and Neoplatonists, but also to some extent from the Stoics; second, from Jewish moral and historical beliefs. three, certain doctrines, especially those of salvation, which, though in part traceable to Orphism and some similar sects of the Near East, are largely new in Christianity . I think the most important Jewish elements in Christianity are the following: 1.A sacred history, which recounts from the creation of all things to the future end, and shows mankind that God's actions are just.

2.There are some who are especially favored by God.For the Jews, these people are God's chosen people; for Christians, they are the chosen people. 3.A new concept of "justice".The virtue of giving, for example, was inherited by Christianity from later Judaism.The importance attached to baptism may have come from some mystical sect of Orphism or Eastern paganism.But practical charity, an element in the Christian concept of virtue, seems to have Jewish origins. 4.law.Christians kept parts of the Hebrew law, such as the Ten Commandments, but removed the ceremonies and ceremonies.In practice, however, they approached the Apostles' Creed with roughly the same affection that the Jews gave to the Law.This means that right belief is at least as important as moral conduct, a doctrine that is essentially Greek in origin.But the exclusivity of the electorate originated from the Jewish nation.

5.Messiah.The Jews believed that the Messiah would bring them temporal prosperity and help them defeat earthly enemies; they especially believed that he would appear in the future.Christians believe that the Messiah is the historical Jesus, and Jesus is considered to be the Logos in Greek philosophy; however, the place where the Messiah enables believers to defeat the enemy is in the kingdom of heaven, not on earth. 6.heaven.The afterlife is, in a sense, a concept shared by Jews, Christians, and later Platonists.Yet the concept took a more concrete form among the Jews and Christians than among the Greek philosophers.In much Christian philosophy, not in popular Christianity, one sees the Greek doctrine that the perceptual world in space and time is an illusion, and that one learns to live only through spiritual and moral training. In the only true eternal world.On the other hand, the teachings of Judaism and Christianity believe that the afterlife is not physically different from the present world, but will be different in the future, when the good will enjoy eternal joy and the wicked will suffer forever.刼pain.This belief embodies a vengeance understandable to all, but not to the teachings of the Greek philosophers.

In order to understand the origin of these beliefs, we must take into account certain facts in Jewish history, which we will now focus on.The early history of the nation of Israel cannot be verified from any source other than the Old Testament, and we have no way of knowing when it ceased to be pure legend.We might as well think of David and Solomon as two kings who did exist.In some of the earliest accounts that we have touched that are truly historical, there are already two kingdoms, Israel and Judah.Among the characters described in the Old Testament, the first person to be independently recorded is King Ahab of Israel.He is mentioned in an Assyrian letter dated 853 BC.The Assyrians finally conquered the northern kingdom in 722 BC and took most of the inhabitants captive.Since then, the Kingdom of Judah has preserved Israel's religion and traditions alone.The Babylonians and Medes captured Nineveh in 606 BC, and the Assyrian kingdom fell, but the Judah kingdom continued for a short period of time after Assyria fell.In 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem, destroyed the temple, and took most of the people captive to Babylon.Babylon was destroyed by Cyrus, king of the Medes and Persians in 538 BC.King Cyrus issued a decree in 537 BC allowing the Jews to return to Palestine.Many people returned to Palestine under the leadership of Nehemiah and Ezra, they rebuilt the temple, and Judaism began to take shape.Judaism underwent an extremely important development during, and around, the period of exile.From a religious point of view, there initially seemed to be little difference between the Israelites and the surrounding tribes.Jahweh was originally just a tribal god who loved the children of Israel, but it is undeniable that there were other gods, and the worship of these gods was also customary.The statement in the first of the Ten Commandments: "Thou shalt have no other gods before me" indicates that this was an innovation not long before the Babylonian captivity.This has been confirmed by various scriptures from the early prophets.The prophets of this age were the first to teach that it was sin to worship pagan gods.They declared that Yahweh's favor was indispensable to their victory in the constant wars of the day; and if they also worshiped other gods, Yahweh was about to withdraw his favor.Especially Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who seem to have invented the idea that all but one religion is false, and that the Lord punishes idolatry.The following citations may illustrate their admonitions, and the pagan cults that prevailed in our time against which they opposed. "Did you not see what they did in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem? Children gathered wood, fathers kindled fires, women kneaded dough and made bread for Ishtar, queen of heaven, and poured out drink offerings to other gods to provoke me. Be angry." The Lord was angry at this. "They built the high place of Topheth in the valley of Hinnom, that they might burn their children in fire. This was not what I commanded, nor was it in my heart."

There is a very interesting record in the Book of Jeremiah, which states: Jeremiah accused the Jews in Egypt of worshiping idols.He had lived with them for a time himself.The prophet told the Jewish exiles in Egypt that Yahweh would destroy them all because of their wives offering incense to the other gods.But they did not listen to him, and they said, "We will carry out every word that has come out of our mouths, and we will burn incense to the Queen of Heaven and pour out drink offerings, according to the laws that we and our ancestors, kings, and princes did in the cities of Judah. Just as we used to do in the streets of Jerusalem; for then we had enough to eat, and enjoyed good things, and saw no evil.” But Jeremiah assured them that Yahweh had noticed these idolatries, and had sent woe to them. "By my great name, says the LORD, my name shall not be spoken by the mouth of a single Judah in all Egypt... I have kept watch over them whether to send disaster or to bless, and all Judah in the land of Egypt will Destroyed by sword and famine until utter extinction."

Ezekiel was also appalled by the idolatry of the Jews.The Lord showed him in a vision the woman weeping for Tammuz (the God of Babylon) at the north gate of the temple; then the Lord showed him still more abominations.Twenty-five people at the gate of the temple were worshiping the sun.The Lord then declares: "Therefore I also will act in wrath; I will not spare my eye nor pity them; though they cry out to my ears, I will not hear them." The idea that all but one religion is evil, and that the Lord will punish idolatry, was evidently initiated by these prophets.Generally speaking, the prophets were extremely nationalistic; they looked forward to the day when the Lord would completely destroy the Gentiles.

The captivity of the Israelites was used to justify the rebukes of the prophets.If Yahweh was Almighty, and the Jews were his chosen people, then their suffering can only be said to be due to their wickedness.This is a father's psychology of disciplining his children, that is to say, the Jews must be purified through punishment.Under the influence of this idea, the Jews in exile developed a stricter and more exclusionary orthodoxy than at independence.Those Jews who stayed behind and did not migrate to Babylon did not experience the same degree of development.When Ezra and Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after their exile, they were astonished to find mixed marriages so common that they dissolved all such marriages.

What distinguishes the Jews from other ancient peoples is their tenacious national pride.Other peoples, once conquered, have always submitted themselves to the conqueror.Only the Jews maintained their solipsism, and were convinced that their misfortunes were due to the wrath of God, because they had failed to preserve the purity of their faith and doctrine.Most of the historical chapters in the Old Testament were compiled after the exile, and they tend to give people a wrong impression.For they imply that the idolatry against which the Prophet was opposed was a departure from the prudent fashion of the past.In practice, however, there has never been such a scrupulous fashion.Prophets were innovators to a greater extent than we understand when we read the Bible ahistorically.

During the exile, certain things developed that later became characteristic of Judaism.But some of it comes from pre-existing roots.The Jewish ritual was forced to become sacrificeless due to the destruction of the only temple where the sacrifice was held.During this period synagogues were created, where they read parts of the Bible that existed at the time.From this period, the importance of the Sabbath was emphasized, and circumcision as a Jewish symbol began to be valued.Marriage to Gentiles as we know it was also banned during the exile.Exclusivity of all kinds has grown. "I am the LORD your God, who separates you from all peoples." "You shall be holy, for I, the LORD your God, am holy." The law was a product of this period.It is a major force for maintaining national unity.

What we call the Book of Isaiah is the writing of two different prophets, one before the exile and one after it.The latter of the two, known by the Bible Students as the Second Isaiah, was the most eminent of the prophets.He was the first to report to us that the Lord had said, "There is no god but Me." He believed in the resurrection of the physical body, perhaps as a result of Persian influence.His Messianic prophecies later became one of the main Old Testament passages used to prove that the prophets foresaw the coming of Christ. These passages written by the Second Isaiah have played an extremely important part in the Christian debates between Gentiles and Jews; therefore I will quote the most important passages of them.The nations will be converted at last: "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into sickles; and nation shall not lift up sword against nation, nor shall they learn war any more." (Isaiah 2:4)" And the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel." (Concerning this passage there has been a dispute between Jews and Christians; the Jews say that the correct translation is "A young woman shall conceive," but Christ thought the Jews were lying.) "The people who walked in darkness saw a great light; and to them that dwelt in the land of the shadow of death a light shone... For unto us a child is born, and a son is given, and the government shall upon his shoulders, and his name shall be called Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." The most overtly prophetic is chapter fifty-three, which contains passages with which we are familiar. : "He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows and acquainted with grief. . . . Surely he has borne our sorrows and carried our sorrows . . . but he was wounded for our transgressions and bruised for our iniquities: for His chastisement made us safe; His stripes made us healed...He was oppressed, but kept silent while he was suffering: He was led like a lamb to the slaughter, like a sheep before its shearers. , so he did not open his mouth." The Gentiles are explicitly included in the final redemption: "To your light shall come the nations, and to the splendor of thy discovery shall kings come."

After the deaths of Ezra and Nehemiah, the Jews disappeared from the history books for a while.The Jewish state survived as a theocratic state, but its boundaries were very narrow - according to E.According to Biwan ③, there are only ten to fifteen miles around Jerusalem.After Alexander's death, the area became a contested area between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties.Yet few wars were fought in actual Jewish territory, and the Jews were able to practice their religion freely for a long time. Their moral laws for this period are set forth in the book, which was probably written around 200 BC.Until recently this book was known only in Greek; this is why it was relegated to the Apocrypha.Recently, however, a Hebrew manuscript has been discovered that differs in some places from the English translation of the Greek version of the Apocrypha.The morality in the book is very secular.The reputation among neighbors is highly valued.Honesty is the best strategy, because doing so can attract the favor of Yahweh, which is very beneficial, and the book also recommends that people should give alms.The only sign of Greek influence is the praise of medicine. Don't be too kind to slaves. "Forage, sticks, and burdens are for the ass; bread, punishment, and work are for the servant...give him proper work to do: and if he disobeys, put heavier chains" (ch. 23, 24, 28).At the same time, remember that you have paid him a price, which you will lose if he escapes; ).Daughters are a great source of distress; evidently in the author's day they were passionate about fornication (ch. 42. 9-11).The author of the book is contemptuous of women: "Silverfish is born of clothes, and evil comes from women" (ibid. 1. Book, verse 13).It is a mistake to be pleasing to your children, and the proper course is: "Tell them to bow their heads from their infancy" (chap. 7, verses 23, 24). All in all, this man, like old Cato, represented the morality of a good businessman who seemed most dishonorable. This peaceful, comfortable and self-righteous life was finally violently interrupted by the Seleucid dynasty, Antiochus IV, who was determined to convert all his lands into the Greek style.In 175 BC he built a stadium in Jerusalem, teaching young people to wear Greek hats and practice various sports.In this he was assisted in this matter by a Hellenistic Jew whom he appointed high priest, Arsen.The priestly aristocracy had long since lax canon and felt the attraction of Greek civilization; but they were strongly opposed by a party called the Hasidim (meaning "holy"), which was popular among the peasantry. Occupy a lot of power.When Antiochus was drawn into war against Egypt in AD 170, the Jews rebelled.So Antiochus removed the sacred vessel from the temple and placed the idol in it.He imitated the method that had been successfully tested in other places, and announced that Yawei and Zeus were one.He resolved to eradicate Judaism, abolishing circumcision and the commandments concerning food.The inhabitants of Jerusalem succumbed, but the Jews outside Jerusalem put up extremely stubborn resistance. The history of this period is found in the Book of Maccabees.The first chapter of the book describes how Antiochus issued a decree that all the inhabitants of his land should be united as one body, and abolished their individual laws.All pagans obeyed this command.Although the king ordered the abolition of the Sabbath, the use of pork for sacrifice, and the prohibition of the circumcision of boys, many Israelites obeyed.Anyone who disobeyed the order was punished with death.But there are still many who defy it. "They put to death some of the women who had their boys circumcised. They strangled the boys, plundered their property, and killed the man who circumcised the boys. Even so, many Israelites steadfastly refused to eat anything unclean. They would rather die than be defiled by flesh, and would not break the covenant; so they died." It was at this time that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul became widespread among the Jews.Virtue is supposed to be rewarded in this world: but the persecutions of the most virtuous prove otherwise.Therefore, in order to defend God's justice, it is necessary to believe in rewards and punishments in the afterlife.This doctrine was not generally accepted by the Jews; it was still denied by the Sadducees in the time of Christ.But at that time they were only a minority, and later all Jews believed in the immortality of the soul. Leading the rebellion against Antiochus was Judas Maccabees, an able military general.He first recovered Jerusalem (164 B.C.) and then proceeded to attack.He sometimes slaughtered all the males of the enemy, and sometimes circumcised them by force.His brother Jonathan was appointed high priest and garrisoned Jerusalem with a garrison; he conquered a part of Samaria, and took Joppa and Accra.He negotiated with Rome and successfully obtained complete autonomy.Until the time of King Herod, his family inherited the position of high priest, known as the Hasmonean dynasty. The Jews of this period endured and resisted persecution with immense heroism, though they stood for things that don't strike us as particularly important, such as circumcision and abstinence from pork. The period of the persecution of Antiochus IV was a decisive period in Jewish history.At this time the Jews in exile were becoming more and more Hellenized; the Jews in Judea were few in number, and among them some wealthy and powerful Jews also tended to acquiesce in Hellenistic reforms.Without the heroic resistance of the Hasidim, Judaism might have died out long ago.If so, neither Christianity nor Islam could exist in the form it once took.Townsend says in his preface to Maccabee IV: "It is well said, that if Judaism as a religion were exterminated under Antiochus, the seed-bed in which Christianity had been bred would be lost; Because the monotheism teachings of Christianity and Islam come from the source of Judaism. So we can say that in the world today, whether in the East or the West, the existence of monotheism really depends on the Maccabees. Even so, the Maccabees were not revered by the Jews in the future, because their high priests adopted a secular compromise policy after their achievements.Only those martyrs are admired by the people.This and other anecdotes are recounted in the Fourth Book of Maccabees, written in Alexandria around the time of Christ.Maccabees' family is not mentioned anywhere in the book, despite its title; it begins with an account of the astonishing fortitude of an old man and seven young brothers, all of whom were at first inspired by Antiochus. tortured, and finally executed by Antiochus.Their mother was there at the time and urged them to persevere.At first the king wanted to soften them with polite words, telling them that as long as they would agree to eat pork, he would favor them and give them a chance to be born.When they refused, Antiochus showed them the instruments of torture.They remained unwavering, however, and told Antiochus that he would suffer eternal pain after death; while they themselves would enjoy eternal happiness.One by one, they first refused to eat pork in front of their brothers and mothers, then they were tortured and finally killed.Finally, the king turned to his soldiers and said that he hoped they would be taught by such a brave example.The above narrative has of course been embellished with elements of legend, but the cruelty of the persecution and the heroism of the endurance are historically true; the main points of contention revolve around circumcision and the eating of pork. On the other hand, this book is also very interesting.Although the author is obviously an Orthodox Jew, he uses the philosophical language of Stoicism in an attempt to prove that the Jews live completely according to the teachings of Stoicism.A passage at the beginning of the book reads: "The question I have raised is highly philosophical, namely, whether inspired reason is the supreme ruler of the passions; and on the philosophy of this question I solemnly beseech your sincere attention. " The Jews of Alexandria, who were willing to learn philosophy from the Greeks, adhered to their laws with extraordinary tenacity, especially circumcision, Sabbath observance, and abstinence from pork and other unclean meats.From Nehemiah to the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, their emphasis on the law increased day by day.They no longer tolerate prophets who preach something new.Some of them, who felt anxious to write in a prophetic style, pretended that they had discovered a book written by Daniel, Solomon, or some other ancient sage.The uniqueness of Judaism united them as a people, but the emphasis of the Law gradually undermined originality and made them extremely conservative.This obstinacy had made St. Paul so outstanding in his struggle against the rule of the law. The New Testament is easiest to see as a fresh beginning for someone who knows nothing about Jewish literature from the immediate pre-Christian period.But this is not the case.The enthusiasm of the prophet, although he had to try to pretend to the ancients in order to win the world's hearing, this enthusiasm has never died.In this respect, the most interesting book is the Book of Enoch, which is a collection of works by different authors.The earliest of these is written only slightly before the time of Maccabees, while the latest is from about 64 BC.Most of the books claim to be records of visions that the elder Enoch saw when he was inspired by God.This is important for the faction that is turning from Judaism to Christianity.The writers of the New Testament were familiar with this book.St. Jude considered it to be indeed the writing of Enoch.The early Christian fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian, had it as canon; but Jerome and Augustine rejected it.As a result, it was first forgotten and finally lost.Three manuscripts written in Ethiopian were discovered in Abyssinia in the early nineteenth century.Since then, partial manuscripts of the book have been found in Greek and Latin translations.The original book appears to have been written partly in Hebrew and partly in Aramaic.The authors of the original book were some Hasidims whose successors were the Pharisees.The book attacks kings and princes - referring to the Hasmonians and the Sadducees.It has influenced the teachings throughout the New Testament, especially concerning Messiah, Hades, and Demonology. This book is mainly composed of "parables"; these parables contain more cosmology than the parables in the New Testament.There are scenes of heaven, hell, and the last judgment.The better writing in the book reminds one of the first two volumes of Paradise Lost; the poorer writing reminds one of Blake's prophetic books. The Book of Enoch has a wonderful and Promethean extension to Genesis 6, verses 2 and 4.Angels taught men the art of metallurgy and were punished for revealing eternal secrets.They are also cannibals.The sinful angels became pagan gods, and their women into sirens; but in the end they were all punished with eternal pain. There are some descriptions of heaven and hell of considerable literary value in the book.The final judgment will be executed by the "Son of Righteous Man," sitting on his throne of glory.Some Gentiles will eventually repent and be forgiven; but most Gentiles, and all Hellenistic Jews, will be eternally damned, because the righteous will ask for justice, and their prayers will be granted. There is a passage on astronomy in which the sun and moon are mentioned, with chariots driven by the wind; there are 364 days in a year; the sins of man have set the heavenly bodies out of their proper orbits; only good men can understand astronomy.Meteors are fallen angels who were punished by the seven archangels. The following discusses sacred history.Its earlier parts follow roughly the biblical accounts down to the history of the house of Maccabees; its later parts follow general history.The author then touches on the future: the New Jerusalem, the conversion of the Gentile remnant, the resurrection of the righteous, and the Messiah. There are many passages in the book about the punishment of the sinner and the reward of the righteous.The righteous never express Christian forgiveness to sinners. "You sinners, what will you do when you hear the prayer of the righteous on the day of judgment? Where will you flee?" "Sin did not come down from heaven to the earth, but by man himself." Sin is recorded in heaven. "Cursed are you sinners forever, and you shall never find peace." Sinners may be happy all their lives, even at their deathbed, but their souls go to Sheol, where they endure "darkness, chains and fire." But to the righteous, "I and my son will be bound to them forever." The last paragraph of the book is: "God will be faithful to those faithful who are on the way of righteousness. When the righteous shine brightly, the faithful will see those who were born in darkness led into darkness. Sinners shall cry out and see the radiant splendor of the righteous, and they shall go to the place appointed for them and spend their days there." Jews, like Christians, think a lot about sin, but only a few think of themselves as sinners.It is a Christian innovation to think of oneself as a sinner, which is presented through the parable of the Pharisee and the publican.In rebuking the scribes and Pharisees, Christ had preached the virtue of thinking of oneself as a sinner.Christians strive to practice Christian humility, but Jews generally do not. There were some important exceptions among Orthodox Jews in the short time before Christ.Take, for example, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, which was written between 109-107 BC.The author was a Pharisee who worshiped John Hyrcanus, the high priest of the Hasmoya dynasty.In its current form, this book includes some places that have been tampered with by Christians, but these places are all about dogma.If these places are omitted, the ethical teachings in the book are still very similar to those discussed in the Gospels.As R. H．Pastor and Dr. Charles said: "The Sermon on the Mount reflects this spirit in several places, and it even repeats the original text of the book: There are many fragments in the Gospels that also show traces of the book. St. Paul seems to have used this The book is a kind of handbook (vademecum)." (Ibid. I. Book. pp. 291-2) In this book we read: "Love one another from the heart; and if someone offends you, calmly Speak to him, and you must not be deceitful. If he repents and admits his fault, forgive him. But if he does not admit his fault, do not be angry with him, lest he be poisoned by you and start cursing. Double sin...if he has no shame and persists in doing evil, forgive him from your heart, and leave the matter of justice to God." Dr. Charles thought that Christ must have been familiar with this passage.We also see: "You shall love the Lord and your neighbor." "You are to love the Lord and love each other with all your heart throughout your life." "I love the Lord; and I also love everyone with all my heart." These words should be contrasted with Matthew 22:37-39.In the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs there is a passage against all hatred; for example: "Anger is blind, it doesn't allow you to see anyone for who they are." "Hate is therefore evil: because it is often accompanied by lies." The author of this book, as might be expected, believes that not only Jews will be saved, but Gentiles as well. Christians have learned to hate the Pharisees from the Gospels, yet the author of this book was a Pharisee, who, as we have seen, taught some of the ethics we have always thought to be the most characteristic of Christianity. motto.It is not difficult to explain this matter.In the first place, the author must have been a peculiar Pharisee even in his day; the most common teachings of the time were, no doubt, those recorded in the Book of Enoch.Secondly, we know that all movements tend to become rigid, who can learn from D. A． R． (Daughters of the American Revolution) where did Jefferson's principles come from?Thirdly, especially with regard to the Pharisees, we know that they regarded the law as the final and absolute truth.This zeal for the law soon ceased all freshness of thought and feeling.As Dr. Charles said: "The Pharisees departed from the ideas of their denominational past and devoted themselves to political interests and movements, while at the same time becoming more and more thoroughly absorbed in the study of the letter of the law, they immediately ceased to give [the patriarch's] testaments of this kind The lofty ethical system has room for development. Therefore, the true successors and believers of the early Hasidims broke away from Judaism and found their natural destination in the embrace of primitive Christianity." After a period of high priestly reign, Mark Antony appointed his friend Herod king of the Jews.Herod was a dissolute adventurer, he experienced several crises of bankruptcy, accustomed to the social life of Rome, far from the piety of the Jews.His wife was of a high priestly family, yet he was an Idumian, and this alone was enough to make him an object of suspicion by the Jews.He was a masterful follower, and when it became apparent that Octavian's army was on the verge of victory, he immediately turned his back on Antony.Nevertheless, he did his best to keep the Jews under his rule.He rebuilt the temple, but this temple was fitted with many Corinthian columns; and it was built in the Greek style.He installed a huge golden eagle above the main entrance, thus violating the second commandment.When it was said that he was going to die, the Pharisees tore down the eagle.In revenge, he executed some of the Pharisees.He died in 4 BC.Shortly after his death, the Romans abolished the kingship and placed the Jewish state under a governor.Pilate was appointed governor in AD 26, but was soon dismissed because of his lack of intelligence. In AD 66, the Jews, led by the Zealots, rebelled against Rome.They failed, Jerusalem was captured in AD 70, the Temple was destroyed, and only a few Jews remained in Judea. The Jewish diaspora had already become very important in the centuries preceding this period.The Jews were originally almost all farmers; but during the exile they learned to trade from the Babylonians.After the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, many people remained in Babylon, and some of them became very rich.After Alexandria was built, a large number of Jews settled there. They had a designated area, but this was different from the Ghetto today. This area was set up to avoid contamination from contact with Gentiles.The Jews in Alexandria were more Hellenized than the Jews in Judea, and they even forgot the Hebrew language.So they had to translate the Old Testament into Greek, and the result was the Septuagint. The Pentateuch was translated in the middle of the third century BC; the rest were translated later. There are legends about the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, so named because it was translated by seventy translators.It is said that the seventy translators each translated the entire book, but when people compared these translations, they found that the translations were completely consistent even in the most subtle places, because all the translators were inspired by the gods.However, later scholars pointed out that the Septuagint version of the Old Testament has serious shortcomings.After the rise of Christianity, the Jews almost stopped using it, and they re-read the Old Testament in Hebrew.In contrast, the early Christians, few of whom were fluent in Hebrew, relied on the Septuagint, or the Latin translation retranslated from it.Origen worked tirelessly to produce a better translation in the third century.Until Jerome completed the Latin translation of the Bible (Vulgate) in the fifth century, readers who knew only Latin had to be content with a few defective translations.Jerome's translation was initially criticized because he had some Jewish help in translating the book.Many Christians believe that the Jews deliberately tampered with the words of the prophets, intending to prevent the prophets from predicting the birth of Christ.However, St. Jerome's translation was finally recognized by the general public, and it still maintains his prestige in the Catholic Church to this day. 和基督处于同时代的哲学家菲罗是犹太人在思想方面受到希腊影响的最好的说明。菲罗在宗教上是个正统教派，但他在哲学上却首先是个柏拉图主义者；此外他还受到斯多葛派和新毕达哥拉斯派的重要影响。耶路撒冷陷落后，他在犹太人中的影响消逝了，但基督教的教父们却发现他曾指出一条使接受希腊哲学与承认希伯来经典相调和的道路。 古代每一个重要城市都逐步建立了相当数量的犹太侨居地，犹太人和东方其他宗教的代表者分别影响了那些不满意怀疑主义或希腊罗马官方宗教的人们。不仅在罗马帝国，在俄罗斯南部也有许多人改信了犹太教。基督教可能先引起了犹太人或半犹太人集团的共鸣。正如以前耶路撒冷失陷于尼布甲尼撒时一样，正统犹太教自从耶路撒冷陷落后变得越发正统化和越发狭隘了。公元一世纪以后，基督教也具体化了；基督教和犹太教处于一种彻底敌对和形式上的关系之中。有如下述，基督教有力地激起了反闪族主义。整个中世纪期间，犹太人在基督教国家的文化中并不占任何地位，他们受到了过分严酷的迫害，所以他们除了为建筑天主教堂提供资金以及作些类似的事情之外，他们已经没有能力对文明有所贡献了。这时犹太人只有在回教徒中间才能得到人道的待遇、钻研哲学，并进行启蒙性的思辨。 整个中世纪里，回教徒是比基督教徒更为文明和更为人道的。基督徒一贯迫害犹太人，尤其在宗教的骚动期间为最甚；几次十字军战役是和许多次惊人的犹太人集体屠杀分不开的。在回教国家里与此相反，犹太人却没有受到什么虐待。特别在摩尔人统治下的西班牙，犹太人对于学问是有所贡献的。迈蒙尼德斯（1135-1204），生于克尔多巴（cordova）曾被一些人认为是斯宾诺莎哲学的主要来源。当基督教徒重新征服西班牙时，把摩尔人学问传给西班牙人者，大部分都是些犹太人。犹太学者通晓希伯来文、希腊文和阿拉伯文，他们也熟悉亚里士多德哲学，并把他们的知识传授给学问较浅的经院学者。但他们也曾传授了一些不大值得向往的东西，例如炼金术和占星术等。 中世纪以后犹太人仍然对文明有过很大贡献，但这只是作为个人、而不再是作为一个种族来进行的了。