Chapter 23 Chapter Twenty-Three

In 589 AD, China was unified by the Sui Dynasty (590-617) after centuries of division.However, the Sui Dynasty was soon replaced by the Tang Dynasty (618-906), which was a powerful and highly centralized dynasty.The Tang Dynasty was the golden age of China both culturally and politically, comparable to the Han Dynasty, and surpassed the Han Dynasty in some respects. The examination system for the selection of officials, dominated by the Confucian classics, was reestablished in 622. In 62S, Tang Taizong (reigned 627-649) ordered the construction of a Confucian temple in Taixue; in 630, he ordered scholars to prepare official editions of Confucian classics.Part of this work is to select the standard commentary from the voluminous commentary of the previous generation, and then make a thinning for the standard commentary.The emperor then issued by order the texts of these classics, together with their official commentaries, to be taught in the Taixue.In this way, Confucianism was re-established as the official teaching of the state.

At this time, the vitality of Confucianism expressed in the writings of Mencius, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu and others had long been lost.There are classic original stationery, and there are even more annotations, but none of them can meet the spiritual interests and needs of the times.After the revival of Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism, people became more interested in metaphysical issues, and what I call super-moral values, or what was then called the science of life.We have seen in Chapters 4, 7, and 15 that there are already many discussions on these issues in Confucian classics such as Mencius and The Doctrine of the Mean.However, these classics need a truly new interpretation and development in order to solve the problems of the new era.At that time, despite the efforts of royal scholars, there was still a lack of such explanation and play.

It was not until the second half of the Tang Dynasty that two men, Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (died about 844), made a real effort to reinterpret the Daxue to answer their contemporary questions. , "The Doctrine of the Mean".Han Yu wrote in his essay "Original Dao": "Siwu's so-called Dao is not the so-called Tao of the old and the Buddha. Yao taught it to Shun, Shun taught it to Yu, and Yu taught it to Tang. Tang Yishi passed on Wen, Wu, and Zhou Gong, Wen, Wu, and Zhou Gong passed on Confucius, and Confucius passed on Meng Ke. Ke's death cannot be passed on. Xun and Yang also made choices but not refined, and words were not ominous. "("Mr. Changli's Collected Works" Volume 11)

What Li Ao wrote in "Book of Restoration" is also very similar: "The sages of the past passed it on to Yan Zi....Zi Si, the grandson of Zhong Ni, learned the way of his ancestors, and described the forty-seven chapters of "The Doctrine of the Mean" , to pass it on to Meng Ke....Wow! Although the book of life exists, no scholar can understand it. It is to put everyone in Zhuang, Lie, Lao, and Shi. Those who don’t know say that the disciples of the master are not enough to know the way of life. Those who believe in it It’s all true. If you ask me, I will pass it on based on what I know,...but if there is no way to discard it, it can be passed on in time." ("Li Wengong Collection" Volume 2)

This kind of "orthodoxy" has already been outlined by Mencius (see "Mencius: Dedication"), and what Han Yu and Li Ao said was obviously re-inspired by the lineage of Zen Buddhism.The saying of Zen is that the heart of the Buddha is passed down through the Buddhas of all dynasties, and passed down to Hongren and Huineng.Later, Cheng Zi, a Neo-Confucianist, also unequivocally said that "The Doctrine of the Mean" "is the way of mind taught by Confucianism" (quoted in the preface of Zhu Xi's "The Doctrine of the Mean").It is generally believed that this tradition was lost when it was passed on to Mencius.But Li Ao obviously felt that he had a good understanding of orthodoxy, and through his teaching, he seemed to be the successor of Mencius.To achieve this has become the ambition of all New Confucians after Li Ao.They all accepted Han Yu's orthodoxy, and insisted that they themselves were upright orthodoxy.It is not unfounded for them to say this, because New Confucianism is indeed a continuation of the pre-Qin Confucian idealism, especially the continuation of Mencius' mystical tendencies, as can be seen in the following chapters.It is for this reason that these people are called "Taoists" and their philosophy is called "Taoism". The term "New Confucianism" is a newly coined Western term, which is completely equivalent to "Taoism".

The main sources of Neo-Confucianism can be traced to three lines of thought.First, of course, is Confucianism itself.The second is Buddhism, including Taoism with Zen as an intermediary, because among the various Buddhist schools, Zen was the most influential during the formation of New Confucianism.From the perspective of New Confucianism, Zen and Buddhism are synonymous; as mentioned in the previous chapter, in a certain sense, New Confucianism can be said to be a logical development of Zen.Finally, the third is Taoism. An important component of Taoism is the cosmogenesis theory of the Yin-Yang School.The neo-Confucian theory of cosmogenesis is mainly connected with this line of thought.

These three lines of thought are heterogeneous and in many respects even contradictory.Therefore, philosophers want to unify them. This unification is not a simple compromise, but a real system that forms a homogeneous whole. Of course, it takes time.Therefore, although the beginning of Neo-Confucianism can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao, its ideological system was not clearly formed until the eleventh century.This was already the most prosperous era of the Song Dynasty (960-1279).The Song Dynasty reunified China after the fall of the Tang Dynasty after a period of chaos and division.The earliest Neo-Confucians were primarily interested in cosmogenesis.

The first Neo-Confucian philosopher who talked about cosmogenesis was Zhou Dunyi, named Mr. Lianxi (1017-1073).He is from Daozhou (in today's Hunan Province).In his later years, he lived in Lushan Mountain, which is the place where Huiyuan and Daosheng taught Buddhist scriptures mentioned in Chapter 21.Long before him, some Taoists drew many mystical pictures, depicting the esoteric Tao in a schematic way, and they believed that those who got the esoteric teaching would become immortals.It is said that Zhou Dunyi got such a picture, and he reinterpreted it.And modify it into a diagram designed by oneself to represent the evolution process of the universe.It would be better to say that he studied and developed the concepts in "Yi Zhuan" and expressed them with Taoist diagrams.The picture he drew was called "Tai Chi Tu", and the explanation he made was called "Tai Chi Tu Shuo". "Tai Chi Tu Shuo" does not need to be compared with "Tai Chi Tu", and it is easy to read.

"Tai Chi Tu Shuo" says: "There is no limit and Tai Chi. Tai Chi moves to produce Yang, movement to extremes leads to stillness, and stillness produces Yin. Stillness to extremes moves again. One movement and one stillness are the roots of each other; Yin and Yang are separated, and the two appearances are established. . "Yang changes and Yin merges to produce water, fire, wood, metal, and earth. The five qi flow smoothly, and flow in four seasons. "Five elements and one yin and yang, and yin and yang and one Tai Chi. Tai Chi is inherently infinite. The five elements are born and each has its own nature.

"The truth of Wuji, the essence of the two and five, are wonderfully combined and condensed. 'The way of dryness becomes a man, and the way of Kun becomes a woman.' The two qi interact and transform all things. All things are born and change endlessly. "Only people can get the most beautiful and the most spiritual. The shape is born, the gods know it, the five natures are moved, good and evil are divided, and everything comes out. The sages set it up with righteousness, benevolence and righteousness. Standing upright..." (Volume 1 of "Zhou Lianxi Collection")

The "Xi Ci Zhuan Part 1" of "Yi Zhuan" said: "There is Tai Chi in Yi, which is the birth of Liangyi". "Tai Chi Tu Shuo" is the development of this concept.Although it is short, it is the basic outline of Zhu Xi's (1130-1200) theory of cosmogenesis.If Zhu Xi is not the greatest philosopher of Neo-Confucianism, he is also one of the greatest philosophers of Neo-Confucianism.He will be dealt with in more detail in Chapter 25. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is to teach people how to become a Buddha.How to become a Buddha was the most concerned issue of people in that era.The ultimate goal of New Confucianism is to teach people how to become Confucian saints.The difference between the Buddha of Buddhism and the sage of Confucianism is that the Buddha must improve his spiritual cultivation outside society and the world, while the saint must improve his spiritual cultivation within social relations.The most important development in Chinese Buddhism was the attempt to reduce the inherent other-worldly nature of Buddhism.Zen said: "Carrying water and chopping firewood is nothing more than a wonderful way." Saying this means that the attempt is close to success.However, as I said in the previous chapter, they did not push this statement to a logical conclusion, that is, "serving the father and the king is also a wonderful way."Of course, the reason is also obvious. If they really say this, their teachings are not Buddhist teachings, and they don't have to become monks. How to become a sage is one of the main problems of the New Confucianism. Zhou Dunyi's answer is "the master's tranquility", and he further said that "the master's tranquility" is the state of "no desire".His second major work is "Tong Shu", in which it can be seen that the "no desire" he said is basically the same as the "inaction" and "no heart" mentioned by Taoism and Zen. However, he uses "no desire" instead of "wuwei" and "wuxin", which shows that he tries to put aside the transcendental nature of Buddhism.As far as these nouns are concerned, the "wu" in "wuyu" is not as comprehensive as the "wu" in "wuxin". "Tong Shu" said: "If there is no desire, it will be quiet and move straight. If it is quiet, it will be clear, and if it is bright, it will be clear. If it is straight, it will be public, and if it is public, it will be public. Ming Tong will be public and public, and it will be easy!" ("Zhou Lianxi Collection" volume Fives). The word "desire" in Neo-Confucianism often refers to selfish desire, or directly refers to selfishness.Sometimes the word "私" is added before the word "禁", in order to make the meaning clearer.The meaning of Zhou Dunyi’s passage can be illustrated by taking a passage from Mencius as an example, which is often quoted by New Confucianism. This passage in "Mencius" is: "When people see a child about to enter the well, they all have the heart to be cautious. It is not because of the parents of the child. It is not because they want to be praised by the friends of the township party. It is not because they hate him. The sound is natural." ("Mencius Gongsun Chou 1") According to New Confucianism.What Mencius is describing here is the natural and spontaneous reaction of any human being on such occasions.Humans are fundamentally good by nature.Therefore, his inherent state is a state of no selfish desires in his heart, or a state of "quietness" as Zhou Dunyi said.applied to action.It will cause the impulse to save the child immediately. This kind of intuitive action is what Zhou Dunyi called "moving straight".But.If the person does not act on his "first impulse" but stops to think about it, he may think that this child is the son of his enemy and should not save him; or that the child is the son of his friend and should be rescued. save him.No matter what the situation is, he is driven by the "second private thought", that is, the change of thought, thus losing the inherent state of quietness and the accompanying state of movement and straightness. According to New Confucianism, if the mind is free from desires, it is like a bright mirror, which can always immediately and objectively reflect any object in front of it.The clarity of the mirror is like the "brightness" of the heart; the immediate reflection of the mirror is like the "openness" of the heart.If there is no desire in the heart, the natural reaction to external thorns is straightforward in action.Because of straightness, it is "public"; because of publicity, it is treated equally, that is, "pu". This is the method proposed by Zhou Dunyi on how to become a saint, which is like the method of a Zen monk: born naturally and acted naturally. Another Neo-Confucian philosopher who talked about cosmogenesis, to be mentioned in this chapter, is Shao Yong, Mr. Kangjie (1011-1077).He is a native of Henan Province.Although his theory of cosmogenesis is slightly different from Zhou Dunyi's, it is also developed from it, and he also uses diagrams to illustrate his theory. As mentioned in Chapter 18, many weft books appeared in the Han Dynasty, which are said to supplement the original Six Classics.In "Yi Wei", there is the so-called "gua qi" theory, which believes that each hexagram of the sixty-four hexagrams "uses things" for a period of time in a year.According to the theory of hexagram qi, each month of December is under the jurisdiction of several hexagrams, one of which is the "main hexagram", also known as the "Tianzi hexagram".These main hexagrams are: Fusan, Linsan, Taisan, Dazhuangsan, Yang (no word: ocr) three, Qiansan, (female empress) three, Dunsan, Nosan, Guansan, Peeling three, Kunsan .They are important because their images represent the ebb and flow of yin and yang. As mentioned in Chapter 12, in these hexagrams, connected lines represent yang and are associated with heat; broken lines represent yin and are associated with cold.Fusan hexagram, with five broken lines on top and one connected line on the bottom, represents the birth of cathode and yang. It is the main hexagram in November of the Chinese lunar calendar, and the winter solstice is in this month.Gansan hexagram is six connected lines, and it is the main hexagram in April in the old calendar, and the yang reaches its peak. (Female Empress) The five connected lines of the three hexagrams are on the top, and one broken line is on the bottom, indicating that the anode and yin are born. It is the main hexagram in May of the old calendar, and the summer solstice is in this month.The three hexagrams of Kun are six broken lines, which are the main hexagrams in October of the old calendar. When the yin reaches its peak, the next month will be the winter solstice and the yang will be born.The rest of the hexagrams represent the intermediate stages of the ebb and flow of yin and yang. These twelve hexagrams are connected together to form a cycle.When yin reaches its peak, yang will appear on the first day of the next hexagram.Yang gradually rises, month by month, hexagram by hexagram becomes more and more prosperous.has reached its peak.So the first line of the next hexagram appears yin again, and gradually rises to reach its peak.Then it's Yang Sheng's turn again, and the cycle within a year, the cycle of each hexagram, starts again.Such a cycle is an inevitable and natural process. It should be noted that Shao Yong's theory of the universe further clarifies the theory of the twelve main hexagrams.Zhou Dunyi deduced his system from the words in "Yi Zhuan" that "Yi has Tai Chi, which produces Liangyi, Liangyi produces four images, and four images produce eight trigrams" ("Xi Ci Zhuan Part 1").To illustrate this process, Shao Yong drew the following picture: Too soft, too rigid, less soft, less rigid, less yin, less yang, too yin and sun soft Just Negative Positive quiet move The first or bottom layer of the graph represents Liangyi.In Shao Yong's system, Liangyi is not Yin and Yang, but movement and stillness.The second layer, viewed in conjunction with the first layer, represents the four images.For example, if you look at the connection line under the second layer of yang and the connection line under the first layer of movement, you can get the yang of the four images.That is to say, in Shao Yong's system, Yang is not represented by a connecting line "─", but by two connecting lines "=".Similarly, if you connect the broken line under the second layer of yin with the link under the first layer of movement, you can get the yin of the four images.That is to say, the yin in the four images is not "──", but "==". Similarly, the third or uppermost layer, viewed in conjunction with the second and first layers, represents gossip.For example, if you connect the line under the sun on the third level, the line under the sun on the second level, and the line under the first level of movement, you can get the Gansan Gua composed of three lines.Similarly, connect the broken line under the third layer of Taiyin, the connection line under the second layer of Yang, and the connection line under the first layer of movement, that is, Xingdu Sangua.Connect the wires under Shaoyang on the third floor.Connecting with the broken line under the second layer of yang and the connecting line under the first layer of movement, you can get Li Sangua.Use the same procedure to get all the gossip, the sequence is: Qian San, Dui San, Li San, Zhen San.Xun San, Kan San, Gen San, Kun San.Each gossip represents a certain principle or power. These principles are materialized into heaven, earth and all things in the universe.Shao Yong said: "Heaven is born in movement, and the earth is born in stillness. When movement and stillness intersect, the way of heaven and earth is exhausted. At the beginning of movement, yang is born, and at the extreme of movement, yin is born. Yin and yang intersect." And the sky is exhausted. From the beginning of stillness, softness is born. The extreme of stillness is rigidity. When the rigidity and the softness meet, the earth is exhausted." ) Like other terms, "rigid" and "soft" were also borrowed by Shao Yong from "Yi Zhuan", which said: "The way of establishing the sky is called Yin and Yang. The way of establishing the earth is called softness and rigidity. The way of human beings is called benevolence and righteousness." ("Shuo Gua Zhuan") Shao Yong further wrote: "The sun is the sun, the yin is the moon, the shaoyang is the star, and the shaoyin is the chen. The sun, the moon and the stars meet and the body of the sky is exhausted. . . . Softness is earth, less rigidity is stone, water, fire, earth and stone intersect and the body of the earth is exhausted." (Ibid.) This is Shao Yong's theory about the origin of the universe, which is strictly deduced from his diagram.In this diagram, Tai Chi itself is not actually drawn, but it can be understood that the blank space below the first layer symbolizes Tai Chi.Shao Yong wrote: "Tai Chi is one, not moving; two, two are gods. Gods give birth to numbers, numbers give birth to images, and images give birth to objects." ("Huangji Jingshi·Guanwuwaipian") These numbers and All are illustrated in the figure. If the fourth, fifth, and sixth layers are added above the above picture, and the same combination procedure is used, the full picture of the sixty-four hexagrams can be obtained.Then divide this picture into two equal halves, each half is bent into a semicircle, and then these two semicircles are combined into a circle, and another picture by Shao Yong is obtained, which is called "Azimuth Map of Sixty-Four Hexagrams and Circles" . Examining this picture (for simplicity, the sixty-four hexagrams are reduced to twelve "main hexagrams"), it can be seen that the fixed order of the twelve "main hexagrams" in the picture is as follows (from the middle, clockwise): This sequence can be automatically achieved by the so-called "doubling method", because the number of symbols in each layer in the figure is always doubled than the number of symbols in the next layer, so the number of symbols in the uppermost layer, the sixth layer, is 64, 6 Layers form sixty-four hexagrams.This simple progression makes the picture seem natural and mysterious at the same time.Therefore, it is applauded by most Neo-Confucians as one of Shao Yong's greatest discoveries. It is said that in this discovery, the law of the evolution of all things and the key to the secrets of the universe can be found. This law applies not only to the alternation of the four seasons throughout the year, but also to the alternation of day and night every twenty-four hours.According to Shao Yong and other Neo-Confucians, Yin can be interpreted as simply the negation of Yang.Therefore, Yang is the force of formation of the universe, and Yin is the force of destruction of the universe.Interpreting yin and yang in this sense, the law shown in this diagram means that everything in the universe goes through stages of formation and destruction.Therefore, the initial acceptance of the three hexagrams represents the beginning of the stage, and the three hexagrams represent the completion of the stage. (Female Empress) The first line of the three hexagrams indicates the beginning of the stage of destruction, and the three hexagrams of Kun indicate the completion of the stage of destruction.In this way, this picture vividly illustrates that the law of the universe is that everything contains its own negation. This principle is exactly what Laozi and "Yi Chuan" emphasized. The world as a whole is by no means an exception to this universal law.So Shao Yong believed that the world began to exist at the first line of Fu Gua.At the Tai Gua, individual things in the world begin to emerge.At this time, people appeared, and the golden age of civilization reached the Qian Gua.Then there is a continuous process of destruction. When it comes to Bo Gua, all individual things are destroyed; when it comes to Kun Gua, the whole world is gone.Then another world started when the first line of Fu Gua reappeared, and the whole process above was repeated.The creation and destruction of each world took 129,600 years. Shao Yong's main work is "Huangji Jingshi", which contains a detailed chronology of our existing world.According to this chronology, the golden age of our world is long gone.That was in the time of Yao, the twenty-fourth century BC.We are now in an era equivalent to peeling hexagrams, an era in which all things begin to be destroyed.As mentioned in Chapter Fourteen, most Chinese philosophers believe that history is a process of continuous degradation, in which everything in the present is not as good as the ideal past.Shao Yong's theory gives this view a metaphysical basis. The theory that everything contains its own negation.It sounds like Hegel's theory, but according to Hegel, when one thing is negated, a new thing begins at a higher level.But according to Lao Tzu and Yi Chuan, a thing is negated.New things are just repetitions of old things.This is a philosophy characteristic of agricultural nations, as I have indicated in Chapter 2. The third Neo-Confucian philosopher who talks about cosmogenesis to be mentioned in this chapter is Zhang Zai, Mr. Hengqu (1020-1077).He is from Shaanxi Province today.He also put forward the theory of cosmogenesis on the basis of "Yizhuan", but from another point of view.In his cosmogenesis, he especially emphasized the concept of "Qi", which became more and more important in the later Neo-Confucian cosmogenesis and metaphysics. The word "qi" literally means gas (gas) or ether (ether).In the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, the meaning of "Qi" space is sometimes very abstract, sometimes very concrete, depending on the different systems of specific philosophers.When its meaning is abstract, it is close to the concept of "matter", which is found in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, as opposed to Plato's "idea" and Aristotle's "form".In this sense it refers to the primordial, chaotic matter from which all individual things are formed.However, when its meaning is very specific, it refers to physical matter, and all existing individual things are made of it.The "qi" mentioned by Zhang Zai has this specific meaning. Zhang Zai, like his predecessors, based his cosmogenesis theory on the phrase "Yi Chuan has Tai Chi, and it is the birth of Liang Yi".But in his opinion, Tai Chi is nothing but qi.His main work "Zhengmeng" wrote: "Taihe's so-called Dao (referring to Taiji. - Quoter's Note) contains the nature of ups and downs, ups and downs, movement and stillness. The beginning of bending and stretching." ("Zhengmeng Taihe Chapter", "Zhang Ziquanshu" Volume 2) Taihe is the overall name of qi, and it is also described as "you qi" (ibid.).The natures of floating, rising, and moving are all masculine; the natures of sinking, descending, and stillness are all feminine.When the qi is affected by the positive, it floats and rises; when it is affected by the negative, it sinks and descends.This makes the qi always gather and disperse.When Qi gathers, all things are formed; when Qi dissipates, all things die. "Zhengmeng" also writes: "When Qi gathers, it can be given away from the Ming and has form; if it does not gather, it can't be given away from the Ming and has no form. Fang Qi gathers. When it is safe, it is not a guest; when it is scattered, it is safe. Call it non-existence!" (ibid.) So Zhang Zai tried his best to rule out the non-existence of Buddha and Lao.He said: "Knowing that Taixu is Qi, that is nothing." (Ibid.) Taixu is actually not an absolute vacuum; it is just a state where Qi is dispersed and can no longer be seen. There is a particularly famous section of "Zhengmeng" called "Xi Ming", because it was pasted separately on the west wall of Zhang Zai's study as a motto.In this passage, Zhang Zai believes that since everything in the universe is one, man and other things are part of the same great body.We should do things like our father and Kun (earth) like our mother.Treat everyone as your brother.We should promote filial piety and practice filial piety by serving the parents of the universe (that is, the parents of Qiankun).Parents who serve the universe don't need to do anything different than usual.Every moral act, as long as there is awareness of it, is the act of a parent who serves the universe.For example, if a person loves others simply because they are members of the same society as himself, then he is doing his social duty to serve the society.But if he loves others not only because they are all members of the same society, but because they are all children of the parents of the universe, then he loves others not only to serve society, but also to serve the parents of the whole universe up.The conclusion of this paragraph says: "When I am alive, I will obey the law; if I am not, I will rather." "Be born, I will obey the law" means: While I am alive, I will obey and serve the parents of the universe. For "Xi Ming", later New Confucians praised it very much, because it clearly distinguishes the Confucian attitude towards life from the attitude of Buddhism, Taoism, and Taoism towards life.Zhang Zai wrote in another place: "Taixu (that is, Taihe, Dao——Introduction) cannot be without Qi, Qi can't be gathered to form all things, and everything can't be scattered to become Taixu. It is a last resort." ("Zhengmeng Taihe Pian", "Zhang Ziquanshu" Volume 2) A sage is a person who fully understands this process.Therefore, he neither seeks to break the cause and effect and end life like Buddhism does beyond this process; nor does he seek immortality, but pursues body cultivation like Taoism to stay in the world as long as possible.Because of the understanding of the nature of the universe, the sage knows that "life has nothing to gain".Death has nothing to lose" ("Zhengmeng Chengming Chapter", "Zhang Ziquanshu" Volume 3). So he only wants to live a normal life. He is alive, and he is required by his obligations as a member of society and as a member of the universe. what he did; and when he died, he rested in peace. He did what everyone should do, but because of his awareness, what he did took on a new meaning.New Confucianism establishes a point of view. From this point of view, the behaviors that the original Confucians rated as moral all acquire a higher value, that is, a super-moral value.They all have in themselves what Zen calls the "wonderful path."In this sense, Neo-Confucianism is indeed a further development of Zen.