Chapter 21 Chapter 21

The introduction of Buddhism to China is one of the most important events in Chinese history.Since its introduction, it has been an important factor in Chinese culture and has had special influences in religion, philosophy, literature, and art. The exact date of the introduction of Buddhism is a matter of debate and remains unresolved by historians, but it probably occurred in the first half of the first century AD.The traditional saying is that it was during Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty (reigned 58-75), but now there is evidence that Buddhism was already heard in China before Emperor Ming.Since then, the spread of Buddhism has been a long and gradual process.According to Chinese literature, in the first and second centuries AD, Buddhism was considered to be a religion with mystical magic, which was not much different from the mystical magic of Yin Yang School and later Taoism.

In the second century, there was a saying that Buddha was nothing more than a disciple of Laozi, and this saying spread within a certain range.This statement was inspired by "Historical Records Biography of Laozi", which said that Laozi left the customs in his later years, "I don't know where he will end up."Enthusiastic people in Taoism made great use of this sentence and created a story that Lao Tzu went to the West, arrived in India, taught Buddha and other Indians, and had a total of twenty-nine disciples.The implication of this statement is that the teachings of the Buddhist scriptures are nothing more than foreign variants of the Laozi.

In the third and fourth centuries, more Buddhist scriptures with more metaphysical significance were translated, and the understanding of Buddhism also improved.At that time, I believed that Buddhism was very similar to Taoist philosophy, especially Zhuangzi's philosophy, rather than Taoism.Buddhist works are often interpreted in terms of Taoist philosophy.This method is called "geyi", which is explained by analogy. Such a method, of course, would not be accurate and would easily lead to misinterpretation.Therefore, in the fifth century, at this time, the number of Buddhist scriptures translated increased rapidly, and it was determined not to explain by analogy.However, there is still such a situation that the Buddhist masters of the fifth century, including even Kumarajiva from India, continued to use Taoist terms such as "being", "wu", "being", "wuwei", To express the concept of Buddhism.This is different from analogy explanation, the latter is only the superficial similarity of words, while the former means that the words used and the concepts expressed are intrinsically related.Therefore, judging from the content of these works, the continued use of Taoist terminology by the authors did not cause misunderstanding or misinterpretation of Buddhism, but instead resulted in the synthesis of Indian Buddhism and Taoist philosophy, leading to the establishment of a Chinese form of Buddhism.

It must be pointed out here: "Buddhism in China" and "Buddhism in China" do not necessarily refer to the same thing, that is, they are not necessarily synonymous.Because some sects in Buddhism stipulate that they only abide by Indian religious and philosophical traditions, and do not have contact with Chinese ones.Xiangzong, also known as Weishizong, is an example.Xiangzong was introduced to China by the famous Xuanzang (596-664), who went to India to learn Buddhist scriptures.A sect like Xiangzong can only be called "Buddhism in China".Their influence is limited to a few people and a short period of time.They have not entered the thinking of the broad intelligentsia, so they have hardly played a role in the spiritual development of China.

"Chinese Buddhism" is not the case, it is another form of Buddhism, it has been combined with Chinese thought, and it has been developed in connection with Chinese philosophical traditions.As we shall see later, the Middle School of Buddhism shares certain similarities with Taoist philosophy.Zhong Dao School interacted with Taoist philosophy to produce Zen Buddhism.Although Zen is Buddhism, it is also Chinese.Although Zen is a sect of Buddhism, its influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, and art is far-reaching. With the introduction of Buddhism into China, some people have made great efforts for the Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures.Both Hinayana and Mahayana scriptures have been translated, but only Mahayana has gained a permanent status in Chinese Buddhism.

Generally speaking, the greatest influence of Mahayana Buddhism on Chinese people is its concept of the mind of the universe and its negative method of metaphysics.Before discussing these, it is necessary to examine some general concepts of Buddhism. Although there are many schools of Buddhism, and each school proposes something different, all schools agree that they all believe in the doctrine of karma.Karma, usually interpreted as behavior, action.But the actual meaning of karma is broader, not limited to external actions, but also includes what a sentient being says and thinks.According to Buddhism, all phenomena of the universe, or more precisely, all phenomena of the universe of a sentient being, are expressions of his mind.Whenever he moved, he said, so much so that he thought, it was his mind doing something, something that must produce its results, however distant in the future.This result is karmic retribution.Karma is cause, retribution is effect.The existence of a person is caused by a series of causes and effects.

The present life of a sentient being is only one aspect of this whole process.Death is not the end of his existence, but just another aspect of the process.What is in this life comes from the karma of the previous life; the karma in this life determines what will be in the next life.In this way, the karma of this life will be repaid in the next life; the karma of the next life will be repaid in the next life of the next life; and so on to infinity.This series of karma is the "samsara of life and death".It is the chief source of suffering for all sentient beings. According to Buddhism, all these sufferings arise from the individual's fundamental ignorance of the nature of things.All things in the universe are manifestations of the mind, so they are illusory and temporary, but ignorant individuals still yearn for them and are obsessed with them.This fundamental ignorance is "ignorance".Ignorance gives birth to greed, hatred, and obsession; due to the attachment to life, the individual is caught in the eternal cycle of birth and death, beyond redemption.

To escape the cycle of life and death, the only hope is to replace "ignorance" with enlightenment, which is "Bodhi" in Sanskrit.The teachings and practices of all the different sects of Buddhism are all trying to contribute to Bodhi.From these contributions to enlightenment, the individual can, over the course of many rebirths, accumulate the karma of not craving for anything but avoiding craving.When a person has such karma, the result is liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This liberation is called "Nirvana. So what is the exact meaning of the Nirvana state?It can be said to be the identity of the individual with the mind of the universe, or the identity with the so-called Buddha nature;He is the heart of the universe, but he did not understand or realize this before.The Mahayana sect of Buddhism, which the Chinese call Xingzong, expounded this doctrine. (In Xingzong, sex and heart are the same thing.) In exposition, Xingzong introduced the idea of ​​the universal heart into Chinese thought.Therefore, Xingzong can be translated as School of Universal Mind ("Universal Heart" sect).

Other sects of Mahayana Buddhism, such as what the Chinese call Kongzong, also known as Zhongdaozong, do not describe Nirvana in this way.Their method of description is what I call the negative method. Zhong Daozong proposed the so-called "two truths and meanings", that is, the theory of double truths: the truth with ordinary meaning is the "conventional truth"; the truth with high-level meaning is the "true truth".It further argues that not only do these two truths exist, but both exist at different levels.Therefore, the true truth at a lower level is just the conventional truth at a higher level.Ji Zang (549-623), the master of this sect, described the "two truths" in three levels as follows:

(l) Ordinary people regard all things as "existence", but do not know "nothing".The Buddhas told them that everything is actually "nothing", "empty".At this level, saying that all things are "existence" is the conventional truth; saying that all things are "nothing" is the truth. (2) It is one-sided to say that all things are "existence", but it is also one-sided to say that all things are "nothing".They are all one-sided, because they give people a false impression: "nothing" is just the result of the absence of "yes".As everyone knows, the fact is that "being" is "nothing" at the same time.The table in front of us, for example, does not need to be destroyed, in fact, to show that it is ceasing to exist.It is ceasing to exist all the time.The reason is that when you start destroying the table, the table you want to destroy has ceased to exist.The table at this moment is no longer the table at the previous moment.The table just looked as if it was a moment before.Therefore, on the second level of the Two Truths, saying that all things are "existence" and saying that all things are "nothing" are both conventional truths.We should only say that the middle way, which is not one-sided, consists in understanding that all things are neither existence nor non-existence.This is the truth.

(3) However, saying "middle way" is not one-sided (that is, neither existence nor non-existence), which means making a distinction.And all distinctions are inherently one-sided.Therefore, at the third level, it is said that all things are neither existence nor non-existence, and that this is where the "non-unilateral middle way" lies. These statements are just conventional truths.The truth lies in saying: all things are neither existence nor non-existence, and neither non-existence nor non-existence; ). From the words "you" and "wu" used above, the thinkers at that time could see or feel that the central issues discussed in Buddhism were similar to the central issues discussed in Taoism. .Of course, once you go deeper into the analysis, you will know that this similarity is superficial similarity in some respects; time, but it is truly similar. There is another real similarity: the methods used by this school of Buddhism and Taoism, and the results obtained by using this method, are similar.The approach is, using different levels, to have a discussion.Statements at one level are immediately negated by statements at a higher level.As we have seen in Chapter 10, "Zhuangzi·Qiwulun" also uses this method, which is the method just discussed above. Negating everything, including negating this "negating everything", can reach the same state in Zhuangzi's philosophy, that is, forgetting everything, even this "forgetting everything".This state is called "sitting and forgetting" by Zhuangzi, and "Nirvana" by Buddhists.We cannot ask this school of Buddhism what exactly the state of nirvana is, because, according to it, one cannot say anything after reaching the third level of truth. In the fifth century A.D., one of the masters of this sect of Buddhism in China was Humarajiva.He is an Indian, and his country of birth is in present-day Xinjiang Province.He went to Chang'an (now Xi'an, Shaanxi Province) in 401 and settled here until his death in 413.During these thirteen years, he translated many Buddhist scriptures into Chinese.He taught many disciples, some of whom were famous and influential.This chapter only talks about his two disciples: Seng Zhao and Dao Sheng. Seng Zhao (384-414), a native of Jingzhao (near Xi'an today).He first studied Lao Zhuang, and later became a disciple of Gomarajiva.He wrote several papers, which were compiled into a collection called "Zhao Lun" by later generations. The second theory of "Zhao Lun" is "Theory of Not Vacuum", which says: "Then all things have their reasons, so they don't exist, and they have their reasons, so they don't exist. They have their reasons, so they don't exist; they have their reasons, so they don't exist. Nothing, so although there is nothing, it is not nothing.... Therefore, if there is something, if it really exists, if it exists, it will always exist. How can it wait for the condition to exist? For example, if there is nothing, nothing will always exist, how can it wait for the condition and then it will not exist? If it is not possible Self-existence, those who wait for conditions to exist later, know that existence is not true.... If everything does not exist, it should not arise, and if it arises, it is not non-existent.... If you want to say its existence, existence is not true; Pictograms are not non-existent. They are neither true nor real. However, there is no empty meaning, which is manifested here." (see "Tripitaka" Volume 45) The first topic of "Zhao Lun" is "Things Don't Move", which says: "Madam's so-called moving is based on the fact that things in the past are not the same, so it is called moving rather than static. My so-called static is also based on the things in the past. So far, letting go is called stillness rather than movement. Movement is not stillness, so that it will not come; stillness rather than movement, so that it will not go away.... Seeking things in the direction, in the direction is not nothing; responsibility to things in the present, in the present There is no such thing.... It means that the past is in the past, not from the present to the past; If there is no cause, the cause does not come to the present. If it is not destroyed and does not come, then it will not be moved to make it clear." (Ibid.) That is to say, everything is changing every moment.Anything that exists at any given moment is actually new to that moment, not the same thing that existed in the past. "Things Don't Move" also said: "Fanzhi became a monk and returned with a white head. The neighbors saw him and said: 'Is there still a person from the past?' Fanzhi said: 'I am like a person from the past, but not a person from the past.' "Brahma exists all the time.The Brahma at this moment is not the Brahma from the past; the past Brahma is not the Brahma from the present back to the past.Judging from the changes of each thing at every moment, we say that there is movement but no stillness; from the perspective of each thing's present moment, we say that there is stillness but no movement. Seng Zhao's theory embodies the second level of the Two Noble Truths.At this level, saying that all things exist or are static, and saying that all things are non-existent or moving are all conventional truths.It is the truth to say that all things are neither existence nor non-existence, neither moving nor static. Seng Zhao also put forward an argument, concretizing the third level, which is the highest level of the Two Truths.These arguments can be found in "Prajna Ignorance" in "Zhao Lun".Seng Zhao described "prajna" as sage wisdom, but he also said that sage wisdom is actually ignorance.Because in order to know a certain thing, one must select a certain property of the thing and use this property as the object of knowledge.But sage wisdom is to know "nothing", which is "beyond the image" and has no nature, so "nothing" cannot be the object of knowledge at all.We must know that "nothing" is only identical with "nothing".This state of being identical with "nothingness" is called Nirvana.Nirvana and Prajna are two aspects of one thing.Just as Nirvana is not something that can be known, Prajna is known without knowing (see "Prajna Ignorance", contained in "Tripitaka" Volume 45).So on the third level, nothing can be said, only silence. Seng Zhao died at the age of thirty, otherwise his influence would have been even greater.Daosheng (died in 434), a native of Julu (northwest of Hebei Province today), lived in Pengcheng (north of Jiangsu Province today), and was a classmate of Seng Zhao under the school of Hongmoluojiva.He is knowledgeable, enlightened and eloquent. It is said that when he talks about Buddhism, the stubborn stone nods.In his later years, he gave lectures at Lushan Mountain, which was the center of Buddhism at that time, and eminent monks such as Daoan (died in 385) and Huiyuan (died in 416) all gave lectures there.Daosheng put forward many theories, both new and revolutionary, and was driven out of Nanjing by some conservative monks. In the theory put forward by Daosheng, there is the meaning of "good will not be rewarded", the original text has been lost.The "Hongming Collection" compiled by Seng (died 518) included Huiyuan's "Ming Retribution and Response Theory." This treatise may represent some aspects of Daosheng's views, because it also teaches that good will not be rewarded.The general idea is to apply the Taoist concepts of "inaction" and "intention" to metaphysics.Inaction means not really doing nothing, but acting without intention.As long as you follow the principle of inaction and innocence, you will have no attachment to things.This is true even when engaged in various activities.Since "karma" is rewarded because of greed and obsession, now that there is no greed and obsession, of course "karma" will not be rewarded (Volume 5 of "Hongming Collection", contained in Volume 52 of "Tripitaka").Huiyuan's theory, whether it is the same as Daosheng's original intention or not, is also an extension of Taoist theory to Buddhist metaphysics.It is very interesting that Taoism's "inaction" and "wuxin" originally had only social and ethical meanings, but when they enter Buddhism, they have metaphysical meanings. This is very interesting.From this point of view, it is indeed an important development of Chinese Buddhism, and the later Zen Buddhism developed in accordance with this development. In the theory put forward by Daosheng, there is also the meaning of "enlightenment and becoming a Buddha".The theory of becoming a Buddha through sudden enlightenment is opposed to the theory of becoming a Buddha through gradual practice.The latter believes that only through the gradual accumulation of learning and practice, that is, through accumulation of learning, can one become a Buddha.Neither Dao Sheng nor Xie Lingyun denied the importance of accumulating learning, but they believed that no matter how great the effort of accumulating learning is, it is only a kind of preparatory work, and accumulating learning itself is not enough to make a person become a Buddha.Becoming a Buddha is a momentary activity, like jumping over a chasm.Either you succeed in one leap and reach the other shore, and become a Buddha in an instant; or you fail in one leap and remain the same as ordinary people.There are no intermediate steps in between. The theoretical basis of the meaning of "enlightenment and becoming a Buddha" is that becoming a Buddha is to be identical with "nothingness", which can also be said to be identical with the mind of the universe.Because "nothing" is "beyond the image", "nothing" itself is not a "thing", so nothing cannot be divided into parts and parts.Therefore, it is impossible to cultivate one part of it today and another part of it tomorrow.To be identical is to be identical with all.Anything less is not the same. On this issue, Xie Lingyun had many debates with others, which are recorded in "Bian Zong Lun".A monk named Sengwei asked: If a scholar is already identified with "nothing", he will not say "nothing" anymore, but if he wants to learn from "nothing" and use "nothing" to get rid of "yes", then this way Isn't learning "nothingness" a process of gradual enlightenment?Xie Lingyun replied: If a scholar is still in the realm of "being", everything he does is learning, not enlightenment.Of course, if a scholar wants to be able to realize enlightenment, he must first devote himself to learning.But enlightenment itself must be beyond "being". Sengwei asked again: If a scholar devotes himself to learning, hoping to use it to identify with "nothing", will he gradually improve?Why should he learn if he does not progress gradually?If it is gradual progress, isn’t it gradual enlightenment?Xie Lingyun: Committing to learning will have a positive effect in suppressing the dirt in the heart.Such suppression, as if to eliminate the dirt, does not actually eliminate it.Only once you have an epiphany can you "end all stagnation at the same time". Sengwei asked again: If a scholar devotes himself to learning, can he temporarily be the same as "nothing"?If it is possible, it is better to be the same temporarily than to be completely different. Wouldn't this be gradual enlightenment?Xie Lingyun replied: Such a temporary agreement is just a false agreement.Authenticity is eternal in nature.It is the same fallacy to regard the temporary relationship as the real relationship, as to regard the suppression of the dirt in the heart as the elimination of the dirt in the heart. "Bian Zong Lun" is accompanied by Daosheng's "Reply to Wang Weijun Letter". This letter fully agrees with Xie Lingyun's argument. "Bian Zonglun" is contained in "Guang Hongming Collection" edited by Dao Xuan (596-667) (Volume 18, contained in "Tripitaka" Volume 52). Daosheng also has a theory, arguing that "all sentient beings are not Buddhas, and they are all Nirvana" ("Lotus Sutra"), that is, every sentient creature has Buddha nature, or the heart of the universe.His treatise on this issue has also been lost, and his views on this aspect are scattered in the commentaries of several Buddhist scriptures.Judging from these commentaries, he believes that all living beings have Buddha-nature, but he does not realize that he has Buddha-nature.This is "ignorance".This "ignorance" makes him fall into the cycle of life and death.Therefore, he must first realize that he has Buddha-nature, which is inherent in his nature, and then "see" his own Buddha-nature by himself through study and practice.This "seeing" is sudden enlightenment, because the Buddha-nature is indivisible, and he can only see it in its entirety, or nothing at all.Such "seeing" also means being identical with Buddha nature, because Buddha nature is not something that can be seen from the outside.This means what Dao Sheng said, "return to the ultimate, and return to the ultimate". (Volume 1 of "Nirvana Sutra Collection and Explanation") The state of attaining the root is the state of Nirvana. However, Nirvana is not external and distinct from the cycle of life and death, nor is Buddha-nature external and distinct from the phenomenal world.Once epiphany, the latter is at once the former.Therefore, Daosheng said: "The enlightenment of the Mahayana is not close to giving up life and death, but seeking it farther away. In the matter of life and death, you can use it to realize enlightenment." The metaphor of "going to the other shore" is used to express the meaning of Nirvana.Daosheng said: "Talk to the other shore: if you reach the other shore, you have not arrived. If you have not arrived, you are not the last, you have really arrived. Life and death on this shore, the other shore is pinching." (Ibid., Volume 9) He also said: "If you see The Buddha has not seen the Buddha. If he does not see the Buddha, it is because he has seen the Buddha's ear." (Ibid.) This is probably the meaning of Daosheng's theory that Buddha has no "pure land".Here's another of his theories.The Buddha's world is in the world in front of you. There is a treatise titled "On Treasures", which is traditionally said to have been written by Seng Zhao, but probably not by him.It said: "For example, someone, in the gold collection, often looks at the gold body, but does not see the appearance. Although he sees the appearance, it is also a piece of gold. If he is not touched by the appearance, he is separated. He often observes the gold body. There is no There are falsehoods. The same is true for other real people." ("Tripitaka" volume forty-five) means: Suppose a person sees gold wares in the treasure house where gold wares are stored, but he does not pay attention to the shape of gold wares .Or even noticing the shapes of the gold objects, he recognized them all as gold.He is not fascinated by the variety of shapes, so he can get rid of their superficial distinctions.He always saw that the essence in them was gold, and he was not troubled by any illusion.This metaphor illustrates what real people are. This statement may not have originated from Sengzhao; but as a metaphor, Buddhists often used it later.The reality of Buddha nature itself is the phenomenal world, just as the gold utensil itself is gold.There is no reality outside the world of appearances, just as there is no gold outside gold.Some people, because of "ignorance", only see the phenomenal world, but do not see the reality of Buddha nature.Others, due to enlightenment, see the Buddha nature, but this Buddha nature is still the phenomenal world.Both kinds of people see the same thing, but what the enlightened person sees has a completely different meaning from what the ignorant person sees.This is what is often said in Chinese Buddhism: "If you are confused, you will be ordinary, and if you are enlightened, you will be holy." In Daosheng's theory, there is also the meaning of "every Chanti person (that is, those who oppose Buddhism) can become a Buddha".This is the logical conclusion that all sentient beings have Buddha-nature.But this was in direct conflict with the "Nirvana Sutra" seen at the time. Because Daosheng proposed this meaning, he was expelled from the capital Nanjing.A few years later, when the big edition of the "Nirvana Sutra" was translated, a passage in it confirmed the meaning of Daosheng.Huijiao (died in 554) wrote in Daosheng's biography: "At that time, people used their lives to deduce and explain the Buddha, and this statement has a basis; epiphany, not being rewarded, etc., is also a charter." Huijiao also told us that Daosheng once said: "A husband's image uses his full meaning, and when he gets the meaning, the image is forgotten; words are used to interpret the reason, and human reason is the word's rest.... If you forget to catch the fish with the trap, you can talk about the way." (Ibid. ) That is to say: "The fisherman is in the fish, and forgets the fisherman when he gets the fish; the hoofer is in the rabbit, and he forgets the hoof when he gets the rabbit." ("Zhuangzi·Waiwu") In the tradition of Chinese philosophy, the term is called "Yanqian".According to this tradition, the best speech is the speech that "does not fall into the trap". We already know that in Jizang's "Two Noble Truths", at the third level, there is simply nothing to say.At the third level, there is no danger of falling into the trap of words.But when Daosheng talked about Buddha-nature, he almost fell into the trap of talking, because he called it "heart", and he gave people the impression that the limitations of the definition can also be imposed on it.In this regard, he was influenced by the "Nirvana Sutra", which emphasizes the Buddha-nature, so he is close to Xingzong ("the heart of the universe" sect). It can be seen from this that in Daosheng's time, preparations for the theoretical background of Zen Buddhism have been made, and the details will be known in the next chapter.However, Zen masters still need to incorporate the theories discussed in this chapter into their high reliefs against this background. In the theories mentioned above, we can also find the germs of Neo-Confucianism hundreds of years later.Daosheng's theory that everyone can become a Buddha reminds us of Mencius's saying that "everyone can be Yao and Shun" ("Mencius · Gao Zixia").Mencius also said: "Those who do their best will know their nature. If you know their nature, you will know the sky." ("Mencius: Doing Your Heart") But the "heart" and "nature" mentioned by Mencius are all psychological , not metaphysical.Following the line suggested by Daosheng's theory, and giving metaphysical explanations to mind and nature, we have reached Neo-Confucianism. The concept of "the heart of the universe" is India's contribution to Chinese philosophy.Before the introduction of Buddhism, there was only "heart" in Chinese philosophy, and there was no "heart of the universe".Although the "Tao" of Taoism is "mysterious and mysterious" as Lao Tzu said, it is not yet "the heart of the universe".After the period covered in this chapter, in Chinese philosophy there is not only "heart" but also "heart of the universe".