Chapter 6 Question 6 Gandhi

Gandhi is a special figure in modern world history.He was the leader of the Indian National Independence Movement in the first half of the 20th century. This historical status is undeniable, but there are differences in his description and evaluation.Even among Marxists there are differences of opinion, for example in the USSR there have been very different reviews.Indians respect him as "Mahatma", which is originally a respectful title for monks.French writer Romain Rolland saw him as the embodiment of humanitarianism and oriental spiritual civilization, and he was the same "hero" as musician Beethoven and painter Michelangelo.British pastor Andrews thought he was following Jesus Christ, while Indian Buddhists thought he was imitating Sakyamuni.He fought for India's independence all his life and became the leader of the Indian people's mass movement, but was stabbed to death by his own people in public when India gained independence.He seems to have been born for India's independence, achieved independence, his historical mission completed, even life and thought are also finished.But in 1983, the British film based on his life became a sensation again, but the evaluation may not be the same, both the left and the right will have opinions.It can be seen that there are still quite different views on his political role and his personality.The evaluation of historical figures could have been divided. It is worth noting that Gandhi's image is also very vague, far less clear-cut than his contemporary Lenin and Sun Yat-sen who died earlier than him.I think this may be because Gandhi is a person who has concentratedly expressed the cultural traditions of India and the contradictory unity of modern Eastern and Western cultures.He is as difficult to understand and prone to contradictory views as Indian culture.In fact, this seemingly mysterious color is only due to the fact that Indian cultural traditions use its own unique language, and in modern times, Westerners and even Indians have intentionally or unintentionally painted different colors from various aspects.If we examine the original situation objectively and materialistically, Gandhi and Indian culture are as ordinary and natural as human history, and there is no mystery at all.

Gandhi's period in South Africa was the prelude to his large-scale activities from his return to India in 1915 to his death in 1948. It was a key process in his transformation from an ordinary lawyer to a mass movement leader. The conclusion is based on that, so it can be analyzed as a closed system as if it were placed in a laboratory.When Gandhi returned to India from South Africa, his political thought had already formed a system. Therefore, the discussion of Gandhi's passage may not be without the significance of dissecting typical examples.It should be noted, however, that what is being explored is political thought, not political history.Gandhi is considered not only a statesman but also a philosopher, and he is found in most of the writings on contemporary Indian philosophy.Therefore, it is not meaningless to focus on his thoughts, and it may also be beneficial to the understanding of Indian religious philosophy and cultural traditions.

The basis for the exploration is mainly Gandhi's own book "The Movement for Truth in South Africa" ​​(hereinafter referred to as "South Africa").This is a comprehensive summary written by him in prison in 1924. It was translated into English in 1928 and he edited and wrote the preface for publication.I am based on this first version.As a reference, as of 1932, the collection of Gandhi's speeches (hereinafter referred to as the "collection of speeches") compiled at that time, including Gandhi's articles in his own magazines and his speeches and articles about him published in newspapers and periodicals at that time Notes, originally in English.I am based on the undated fourth edition, which came out in the 1930s shortly after it was compiled.As for other books such as Gandhi's "Autobiography" and "India Self-Government", they are only for reference.I didn't use the complete works after India's independence, but I just wanted to use the original materials as much as possible, and I will not quote other people's works.

The scope of investigation and exploration here is limited to the early period of Gandhi in South Africa, that is, from 1893 to 1906, because before the start of the large-scale movement, Gandhi’s political thought had already been initially formed and manifested, and it was relatively small in scope. It is easy to investigate; secondly, Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa. The mass movement process is complicated, and readers may not understand it, so it must be repeated. To avoid tediousness, only the beginning of the movement is mentioned. Now let's talk about the book "South Africa", which is the basic basis.

The first three chapters of "South Africa" ​​talk about geography, history, and the entry of Indians into South Africa. Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the unfair treatment of Indians everywhere. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 trace the early struggles and summarize past experiences.Then, starting from the "Boer War" and its aftermath, it describes various struggles until Chapter 46.Chapter 47 is "The Beginning of the End".Chapter 50 is "The Struggle Is Over".Finally, there is a brief epilogue, saying that after eight years of struggle, Gandhi returned to India via the United Kingdom in 1914. He was nostalgic for his 21 years in South Africa, and he pointed out this in the last sentence of the so-called "upholding the truth". "Is a priceless and matchless weapon".It can be seen that the so-called "non-violence" is just a weapon without a weapon.In the epilogue, he also said a "law of nature": what is obtained by any means can only be maintained by the same means.What is won by violence can only be maintained by violence, and what is obtained by truth can only be maintained by truth.This is a basic thought of Gandhi.What is worth noting in the book is that from the style of writing, it can be seen that the author's views on the facts and characters described are materialistic. No matter how many traditional spiritualist philosophical phrases he speaks, he still uses the tone of a lawyer to describe and analyze the case, everywhere. Explain the conditions and the cause and effect, and clearly distinguish the subjective from the objective. It does not take the spirit or will as the highest decision-maker, and does not mention inspiration or genius.As for the meaning of his so-called "God", it is also different from the general concept, which is worth analyzing.Of course, this is by no means to say that Gandhi's philosophy is materialism. It just means that although a leader of mass movements is an idealist in his personal world outlook, this does not prevent him from holding a materialist view when directing struggles. There will be no response and success from the masses.

Now, based on Gandhi’s book, I will briefly talk about the conditions of Indians in South Africa before the movement that he saw and said. The purpose is to understand Gandhi’s views on history and people, not on history. Gandhi first talked about the geography and history of South Africa.At that time, South Africa was under the rule of the United Kingdom except for one area occupied by Portugal. It was mainly divided into four colonies, and some were "protected" areas.South Africa produces gold and diamonds.The locals include Zulus, Swazis, Basutos, Botswanans, etc. It is said that when the Europeans came, they thought they were "black slaves" who could not bear the oppression of Europeans in America and fled back to Africa.Gandhi believed that these blacks were the original residents of the area.This shows that white rulers considered Africans to be slaves, while Gandhi considered them natives and whites as latecomers.This is a fundamental difference of position.Gandhi's descriptions of life like the Zulu's were sympathetic, almost biased, for he added apologies to the topographical narrative.This is actually a reflection of Gandhi's basic views on Indians and oppressed peoples.The Dutch came to South Africa to establish a colony and brought some Muslim Malay slaves from Java.These Dutch descendants were called Boers.The British also came later, defeated the Boers in the "Boer War" from 1899 to 1902, and gained the right to rule.Gandhi's descriptions of the bravery of the Boers and the integrity of some of the British constitute another important element of his thinking.He clearly believed that all kinds of people were equal and denied innate racial superiority.The war ended and the struggle continued, culminating in the amalgamation of the four colonies into a Commonwealth of Nations (1910).In his narration, Gandhi put forward his own viewpoint of ethnic equality.He himself said repeatedly that he narrated these historical events in order to explain the "inner meaning" of the subsequent movement.From 1872 to 1893, the British gradually recognized the establishment of a government accountable to Parliament everywhere in South Africa.It was also in 1893 that Gandhi went from India to South Africa. At that time, he himself did not expect to become the first person to oppose racial discrimination.

The British first came to the place of the Zulus, obtained the land, and found that sugar cane, tea, and coffee could be grown here, which required a large number of laborers.Although trying to force and drive the blacks to work hard, they could not establish the slave system that was being abolished (the American Civil War was from 1861 to 1865), so they asked the British colonial government in India for help.The British Indian government recruited a group of so-called "contract workers" from India and sent them to South Africa as regular slaves.The first Indians arrived on November 16, 1860.The Zulus and Indians opened mines and planted for the British colonists, which made the British mine owners and planters rich and established cities.After the five-year contract expires, the surviving Indians will become "free slaves" if they do not return to India, which is actually half slaves.Some Indian Muslims intermarry with local Malays of the same religion, and they are in the same position.Indian businessmen related to these exported laborers also followed.They were considered free people, and without the British noticing, they opened small shops and ran plantations. They also started sugar production, made a fortune, built big houses, and turned a desert into a garden.These businessmen needed accountants, so the bosses who believed in Islam recruited accountants who believed in Hinduism from India.The descendants of these people also grew up.Indian businessmen are on the same level as local blacks, so they do business well with the locals.Blacks were subjugated by European guns and oppressed by their shops. Therefore, although Indian businessmen also cheated them of money, the two sides were equal. They were not afraid and were willing to trade with each other, so Indian businessmen and Indians "free slaves" "It was soon scattered among the states ruled by the English and the Boers, and lived without political rights.The number of free Indians finally reached 40,000 to 50,000, and the number of "free" Indians, that is, expired "contract workers" slaves, reached 100,000.

European colonists came to mine and made their fortunes from gold and diamonds. They only needed slaves and did not pay much attention to land cultivation.These Indians planted vegetables, causing the price of vegetables to drop sharply, and the vegetable gardens that the British had monopolized suffered losses.Only then did these colonists suddenly see competitors who were not all slaves around them. Of course, they were very excited and set off a campaign to expel and persecute Indians.They made a request to legislate that Indians can only be slaves, and they must return to the country if they do not sign a contract after the expiry date.This plan failed, and legislation was imposed on Indians to impose extremely heavy poll taxes, making it impossible for them to live.If not, legislation restricts them from obtaining a business license and can only live and move in designated remote areas.This continuous apartheid and persecution made Indians unable to stand up and fight.However, Indian laborers are illiterate, and only a handful of businessmen know a little English. Among the descendants, a very small number of young people have learned a little English, and they work as the lowest-level employees in government agencies. They neither understand nor know how to do this for Indians. kind of political struggle.Indians can only hire British lawyers to sue among themselves, and rely on luck to meet honest people.The local blacks are naturally in the same situation.But the conflict between the British and the Boers also took advantage of the Indians.One of the reasons for the British to launch the "Boer War" was that the Indians (citizens of the British Empire) were mistreated by the Boers.

Gandhi was not born in the Brahmin caste, but grew up in a devout Hindu family.He received higher education in England, qualified as a lawyer, and returned to his hometown to work as a lawyer in a small native state.At this time, one of my fellow countrymen who opened a store in South Africa co-operated with others. Since his store was in a lawsuit with another Indian store, he asked Gandhi to go to South Africa to help them. He only needed to be their legal consultant and guide the local lawyers. Appear in court for a period of one year.The owner of the shop was a Muslim, and the conditions were very good. Gandhi arrived in South Africa in May 1893.He acted completely as a British lawyer, but unexpectedly, the local whites called all Indians "coolies".How can a "coolie lawyer" take a first-class car and live in a high-end hotel?So Gan was humiliated continuously as soon as he got off the boat, slapped in the face, kicked off the train, and frozen overnight in a small station.This was Gandhi's first lesson, an experience he had neither in India nor in England.Gandhi described this passage in detail in the book "South Africa", and it was mentioned repeatedly in "Autobiography".This opened him to a realization of who and what the Indians really were, and lifted the veil of obscurity that had veiled him both in his own country and as a student in England.But the Indians in South Africa don't understand this, because they only live among themselves and the locals, and never ask to live an equal life with the ruler.Gandhi described how he felt in a dilemma at the time, either to rescind the contract immediately and return to India, or to endure it.He considered it cowardly to flee back, and that he ought to finish what he had begun.He immediately telegraphed the general manager of the railway and asked him to go to the store.So the store telegraphed the relevant agents in various places to take care of him, and went to the railway manager.It can be said that as soon as Gandhi arrived in South Africa, he inadvertently carried out "collution" and "investigation".Only then did he know that Indians cannot go through the main entrance of the station, and it is difficult to buy train tickets and so on.But those Indian businessmen "pocketed" the insult with the money.Not so Gandhi, who said it was "a test of my resolve by the authority who reads all hearts".In fact, he used the code name "God" to represent the cold reality.He understood that he was not alone in being treated unfairly, so he made up his mind to fight.Since then, the trip has been postponed again and again, and he finally spent 21 years in South Africa.The first delay came when he arrived at the Indian store.He believed that helping the store to fight lawsuits while engaging in political struggles would hurt both sides, so he decided to return to India.At the farewell banquet, he happened to see the news that the parliament was going to pass a bill to abolish Indians' voting rights published in the local English newspaper.Few Indians know English, and they don't read newspapers, so they don't know about it.After Gandhi's explanation, everyone asked him to stay for another month to handle this matter.He checked the information overnight, sent the first telegram to the local council in which Indians protested against the government, and sent out a petition based on the law.Under his initiative, rallies and donations were held, and within a month, a petition with 10,000 signatures was sent to the British Colonial Secretary.This is almost the entire number of local Indians.The British government did not approve the bill.The Indians achieved an unprecedented victory at the time.He thought that one month had expired and he was going back to India; but he had become the political apologist and leader of the Indians, and he was retained again, but he was not paid by the donation money, and was still obtained in the name of the legal adviser of the Indian shop. Living expenses paid by merchants.But the local bar association did not recognize it, thinking that the law did not recognize people of color as lawyers.The court rejected the opinion of the bar association.In 1844, Gandhi expanded the temporary committee into the "Indian Congress" in Natal.The name of this "Congress" is the word "Congress" of the "Indian National Congress" (founded in 1885, the predecessor of the current Congress Party) that had been established in India at that time.Subsequently, such "congresses" were established in several other places in South Africa.Gandhi had nothing to do with India's National Congress, but respected its leaders and wanted to promote the organization.In fact, this is a large-scale mass movement of Indian nationalism in politics.At that time, Natal had about 400,000 Zulus, 40,000 Europeans, 60,000 "contract workers", 10,000 "ex-contract workers" and 10,000 free Indians.Europeans thought that Indians were adventurers like themselves, and they feared their own precarious position.Gandhi played the role of organizing the Indians, and then rectified internally, educated his own people, and eliminated the excuses of European opposition.He advocated hygiene, publicized morality, popularized common sense, and established the "Indian Educational Association" in Natal.All Indian gatherings are conducted in Gujarati, the Indian language.Gandhi emphasized that educating oneself is a necessary preparatory step, because if there are "untouchables" among one's own people, one cannot but be regarded as "untouchables" by outsiders.Again he pointed out that he had specified these in order that it might be possible to understand how subsequent movements could suddenly take place on a large scale and take that form.So this article also gives an overview here.As for when Gandhi returned to India and moved his family to South Africa in 1896, because of the distorted and exaggerated reports by Reuters on the political propaganda about South Africa carried out in India, it caused an uproar when he arrived in South Africa and was almost beaten to death by Europeans. After passing by, I will not make a summary.Gandhi used more than a quarter of the book to describe the situation before the so-called "Insisting on the Truth" movement. It seems that the preparatory work has begun.

From Gandhi's narration of the first stage of his political life, we can see the basic standpoint of his thoughts at that time, one is the British lawyer, the other is the Indian nationalist, and the two are not contradictory, but they are related to each other .Hindu family origin is nothing more than a background or foundation, which provides the form and conditions of later activities.There is only calm and objective analysis and firm will in the book, and there is no religious fanaticism at all.His religious language should be interpreted in context.The goal of the political struggle that Gandhi was determined to engage in was fixed from the outset, to demand the equal status of Indians and British, or in the language of the time, to demand that Indians be equal citizens of the British Empire.The struggle of the Indian diaspora in South Africa is just the beginning, and the scope of the target is the whole of India.This is the ideological content of the nationalism inspired by Gandhi's insult in South Africa, which came from the bourgeois equality principles of fairness, justice, and rights in British law.Although British law is different from that of continental Europe, it is not based on Roman law, but the legal principles are still bourgeois, and they are also handed down from Roman law.In European languages, law is inseparable from right (right, droit, recht, the same word in French and German), and right has the same meaning as integrity and correctness. Judiciary is justice and fairness at the same time.This is a legal concept that inherits the equal principle of Roman slave owners and free people, and takes the modern bourgeoisie's equality of commodity exchange as its content.This is the basic principle of struggle.This "dharma" is completely different from the traditional "dharma" (dharma) in India.The ancient codes or "laws" of India are a product of ancient Indian society.The word "Dharma" is mixed with the so-called religion in the West in modern Indian language.Therefore, "law" is an irresistible moral code in the minds of Indians. They think this is the law and religion of the West.This is a regular confusion of ideas when two different social cultures come into contact.The slogan put forward by the Indian national movement in the future, the Hindi "self-government" svaraj and the English homerule, although the form and meaning are the same, but in the minds of the British and Indians, the connotation and extension of the two words are not consistent.Gandhi’s self-reported political struggle in South Africa was clearly based on the principle of legal equality to fight against unequal laws in the early stage, but at first it was only to fight against acts that did not follow the law based on the law.Gandhi's ideas were Hindu nationalist British lawyers' ideas.This idea of ​​"equality" in the British legal system will inevitably lead to the nationalism of the oppressed nations.This is not an Indian tradition.The starting point and criterion of Gandhi's political thought was the British legal concept.Therefore, he called himself "a citizen of the British Empire" many times, and the meaning was to demand the equal status of this citizen. Without this, there would be no demand for national independence and self-government, and there would be no nationalism.India was not an independent country at that time, not even "one" country.The United Kingdom regarded India as a subcontinent and divided it into many "states" in political forms. The British Empire controlled the supreme power in various legal forms.Therefore, Gandhi believed that the equal legal status of the Indians and the British should be obtained first. In essence, he denied the power of the "Empire" by acknowledging the "Empire", so the British government must not recognize it.This kind of thinking is completely British bourgeois thinking.According to the traditional "law" of India, for example, according to the "Manu Code", each "caste" has its own status, and there is no "equality".Therefore, Gandhi later had to strongly oppose the "untouchable" "untouchable" caste system, and declared himself a rebel of the "empire".

The goal of the struggle is to oppose racial discrimination and demand racial equality, and the development of the struggle method originated from the "Boer War".In his book "South Africa", Gandhi's considerations about the actions of the Indians under his leadership in this war include important principles for his subsequent actions.His decisions are an expression of the lawyer's thoughts as he researches the case.He believed that the operation was successful, so he gave a detailed explanation and pointed out that the arguments he put forward in 1899 still did not need to be changed in 1924 when he wrote the book, and explained that the principle was the slogan put forward by the later movement "Insist on the truth" ".We can take Gandhi's thought of guiding the actions of Indians in the "Boer War" as the prototype of his life's political thought system, so it is necessary to briefly explain the situation at this critical moment according to Gandhi's description. When the British established colonial rule in South Africa, the Boers, descended from the Dutch, also ruled two "republics".The British gold mine owners had failed to attack with domestic and foreign forces, and the empire's intervention was ineffective, which finally turned into a war. One of the reasons put forward by the British was that the Boers abused the Indians in the territory (the Indians were the people of the British Empire at that time. ).Gandhi said that the Boers were justified in defending themselves from attack, and that they fought bravely. The British lost at first.Both sides in the war oppressed the Indians. Logically, the Indians were slaves, so they should not help either side, and the outcome was uncertain, so they should not take the risk of standing on one side. Gandhi put forward different considerations.He pointed out that the Indians in South Africa were citizens of the British Empire, and the British said they were fighting for them, and the British had always made all kinds of baseless slanders against the Indians. Now it is time to prove that the Indians are not like that and it is beneficial to the British opportunities for people.Although the British government is unreasonable and even "religiously immoral", as a "citizen" of a country, they have the obligation to do their best when fighting a war instead of discussing moral issues, let alone showing cowardice by considering victory or defeat first.Gandhi's arguments were unadmirable to a person who did not consider himself a slave, and difficult to understand to a person who did not have the way of thinking that ordinary people in India were accustomed to at the time, but Gandhi convinced the masses.He emphatically stated in the book that if he believed in the British Empire and believed in freedom under the British Empire, he would stick to these arguments in India as he did in South Africa, without changing a word.He believes that he has not yet discovered the grounds on which the opponents have changed his views, and that underlying these arguments are the principles of the subsequent political movement.This also explains the idea mentioned above that Gandhi repeatedly raised the idea of ​​fighting for equal status in the British Empire.This is not in line with the idea of ​​unequal status stipulated in traditional Indian "law theory".However, no matter right or wrong, only fulfilling the obligations stipulated by the law is the British legal thought, but it is also the traditional Indian "legal theory" thought and the thought of the modern Hindu holy book "Bhagavad Gita".The two are one at this point. We should see that Gandhi's decision was proposed in the way of a lawyer handling a case, based on objective conditions, and far-sighted, and he took the initiative after analyzing the possible changes of various conditions in advance.He used phrases that both Indians and British could understand (albeit not identically) at the time.It is a characteristic of Indian cultural tradition that idealistic language (especially when translated into foreign languages) expresses materialistic thoughts.In fact, Gandhi’s reason was only one: seize the opportunity to gain the status and basis to fight against the British, that is, the method for the unarmed to obtain ideological and speech weapons and "attack the shield with the spear of the son".And look at the actual results.The British government was reluctant to let the Indians participate in the war, but had to allow the Indians to organize an ambulance team when the defeat was difficult.Gandhi proposed that all Indians contribute, including free men, "freed" contract workers and even "contract" slaves who are still in the "contract" period.Due to the lack of manpower, the British government even persuaded the plantation owners to let the contract workers "coolies" and other free Indian "coolies" go to rescue the British soldiers, but the boss had to send someone to "supervise the work".So Gandhi organized a team of 1,100 people to conduct field rescue knowledge training, so that Indians of different beliefs such as Hinduism and Islam, and Indians with different languages ​​from various parts of India, "free" and unfree Wait for the "coolies" to combine together and overcome all kinds of difficulties to carry out field rescue.There are three to four hundred contract workers who have expired in the ambulance team, and 37 of them have become team leaders recognized by the government.Indian businessmen donate money to make life and work easier for ambulance teams.This team is called "Indian Team", does the same job as the European ambulance team, and does not discriminate against those in the European team who have made anti-Indian riots.After only two months in this way, the British turned the tables and both ambulance teams were disbanded.However, the achievements of the Indian team were published in English newspapers and received the approval of the British government. The governor of India also "rewarded" a contract worker slave who took the risk of saving the British soldiers and made great contributions with a "yellow jacket" (Kashmiri robe). And asked the local government to hold an award ceremony.Of course, obtaining the recognition of the British is not a real gain. The British government "broke its promise and became fat" in an instant, smearing its face and denying it.The real takeaway is that the Indians have thus experimented with an organized effort to make all kinds of people not just those who think this place or that, this sect or that, this class or that class , and began to know that everyone is Indian, and received a practical nationalist ideological and political education.This was the first achievement of the goal that Gandhi had fought for all his life.He did this by uttering modern English bourgeois thought in the traditional language and manner of ancient Indian society to organize and unite, to educate the masses, and to direct action.He implements the lawyer's decisions in a religious manner.Only in this way can it be understood by hundreds of millions of Indians, so that the top leaders and British opponents can understand it according to their own understanding, and perhaps only foreigners who do not understand it.There is nothing mysterious and strange about it.However, Gandhi could not finally make the residents of the Indian subcontinent recognize that they belonged to one nation and country.He announced this fact, acknowledged the "partition" of India and Pakistan, became a "superfluous person", and ended his historical mission and his own life.This is an afterthought, but there is an antecedent. Gandhi originally planned to live in South Africa for only one month, but it was extended to more than six years. He returned to India in the winter of 1901, and went to Mumbai to practice as a lawyer in 1902, ready to work for the whole of India.However, within three or four months, he was recalled by South African Indians urgently, and the famous large-scale and long-term political struggle began, which lasted until the First World War in 1914.The cause of the struggle is simple.The British, who had taken power from the Boers, still inherited the Boer laws against Indians, and the committee that re-examined the old laws removed only those parts that were unfavorable to the British.The British also set up an "Asian Division" to deal with Indians, using some British soldiers from India.They are prejudiced against Indians, and the restrictions are intensified.The struggle of the Indians also developed gradually.The form that appeared later was Gandhi's original use of the traditional Indian "asceticism" method, and openly solicited Hindi names to replace the original English "passive resistance", thus obtaining the "holding to the truth" ( Satya-graha) name of the movement.Later, Gandhi used another traditional religious philosophy term "ahimsa" or "abstinence from killing" (ahimsa) and translated it into English "non-violence", which became the accepted name in the world.In addition, there are names such as "non-cooperation" and "civilizational resistance", which are not fixed. Now briefly describe the causes of the struggle. After the "Boer War", the British rulers began to restrict the entry of Indians and drive away Indians step by step.First, Indians are required to re-register, and newcomers must first obtain an entry permit.After negotiation, the Indians complied and completed the formalities in 1906.But the British went one step further and demanded the passage of the Asians Act.This bill was first proposed in a state, mainly requiring all living Indians, men and women, and children over the age of eight to register and obtain ID cards, and to show ID cards when dealing with any government agency, and the police have the right to check anytime and anywhere Check the ID card, and you can also go to the Indian home to check the ID card at will.All registrants must have their fingerprints (originally only illiterate fingerprints).Gandhi believed that nowhere in the world did laws of this nature treat free men.Only fixed-term contract workers need various passes, but they are hardly free people.It is said that taking fingerprints can only be used to treat criminals.Registration is also new for women and children under the age of 16.The British ruler intends to start with one state, and after passing this bill, it can be implemented in other states.The law provides for imprisonment or fines for disobedience, up to deportation.In this way, even the wealthy in India are always in danger of bankruptcy.Coupled with the racial restrictions originally set by the Boer government that Asians have no right to vote and can only own land in designated areas, it is obvious that Indians can no longer live in South Africa unless they only serve as unfree laborers.Gandhi refuted the so-called defense of Western civilization by General Smuts and others, proving that the real reason was only business and skin color.He believes that Indians' thrifty business has hurt the material interests that European small businessmen are desperately pursuing, while white people's contempt for people of color has become an integral part of their psychology, and even the United States is inevitable.At this time, Gandhi was still working as an ambulance in the war against the Zulu uprising by the British government.He organized a stretcher team of twenty people.He believed that the actions of the Zulu people could not be regarded as rebellion, and the Europeans were unwilling to rescue the injured Zulu people, so Gandhi's stretcher team also rescued the Zulu people.The stretcher team disbanded within a month.Immediately, Gandhi saw the draft law restricting Indians, and believed that the situation was serious and that resistance measures must be taken in time.So on September 11, 1906, the Indian Congress was held in a rented Jewish theater.Here Gandhi was proposing the need for "a united front" (a united front) and was prepared to suffer the resulting disaster if some resolutions were passed by the General Assembly.The conference was conducted in Gujrati and Hindi, and for those who did not understand, there were oral interpretations in Tamil and Trugu.The meeting was presided over by the chairman of the "British Indian Association" of the state.He is the oldest resident in the area and the owner of a famous big store.We can tell from the name "Abdul" that he is a Muslim.The most important of the resolutions passed by the Congress was the Fourth Resolution, which was the solemn decision of the Indians that if the bill was passed into law, they would never obey and bear all the punishments resulting from it.This is the beginning of a big struggle.This struggle lasted for eight years. Not only did Gandhi become the leader, but the struggle he led expanded to India itself, until India's independence and his own death in 1947. Now we will no longer describe the history itself after this, but only examine Gandhi's political thought up to this point. The book "South Africa" ​​is described here, followed by "The Movement for Truth and Passive Resistance", which made a preliminary theoretical summary. It can be seen that he himself also used the previous stage as a prelude, and thus initially completed the basic thinking and action model. .We shall now briefly examine two aspects: politics and religion. Obviously, this Indian resistance movement was the beginning of the struggle against racial discrimination in South Africa that is still going on today.Gandhi used the idiomatic term "Europeans" at the time to refer to the British and Dutch Boers, who are now commonly referred to as Afrikaans.Gandhi's opposition to racial discrimination based on skin color is actually a resistance of the oppressed to the oppressor.The basis of political struggle is the expression of conflicting economic interests.Gandhi made this point very clear: if the Indians were to be only laborers, loggers and water delivery workers, the Europeans had repeatedly declared that they would not object.Gandhi fully realized that it was the economic rivalry between Indian and British merchants that gave rise to political and legal suppression by the British.But this distinction and discrimination based on skin color hurts not only Indian businessmen but all people of color.In fact, Africans and Indian laborers were originally slaves, and the targets were only Indian businessmen and their lawyers and other employees.Gandhi knew this, but in theory and practice he counted Indian laborers and African Zulus on his side.Gandhi debunked the fact that the British did not say so, united the interests of the Indian merchants with those of oppressed people of color, such as labourers, and thus won sympathizers among the Europeans.约翰内斯堡有华侨约三四百人，其领袖也同甘地一起反抗并入狱，而且作为一方面代表同在妥协协定上签字。甘地特别提到这些中国商人和经营农业者并认为中国农业比印度发达。马克思早在1844年就指出，这种政治的革命的基础就是：“一定的阶级从自己的特殊地位出发，从事整个社会的解放。”“在市民社会，任何一个阶级要想扮演这个角色，就必须在一瞬间激起自己和群众的热情。在这瞬间，这个阶级和整个社会亲如手足，打成一片，不分彼此……”这正是对甘地从南非到印度所领导的革命群众运动的本质的表述。这一点可以不必多说。 甘地领导的印度资产阶级向英国资产阶级要求平等权利的思想实质前面已经说过，不过应该注意，甘地用“自由”一词而不强调“平等”。他的“自由”是自由人地位平等的“自由”，不是卢梭式的“自由”。那种个人自由，甘地不但不同意，而且反对。他说他作为代表去英国时曾同一些印度的无政府主义者谈话，1908年在回南非的船上写下了《印度自治》一书，答复在英国和在南非的有同样见解的人。他的南非农场命名为“托尔斯泰农场”，但他的乌托邦是实际的，决不是托尔斯泰的原始基督教式的乌托邦。甘地的政治思想的出发点和落脚点是英国资产阶级思想中的平等而不是法国大革命时群众思想中的个人自由，也不是指个人平等。无论“平等”或“自由”都是外来的资产阶级新思想，不属于印度传统。 但是甘地的斗争方式却是印度式的，否则他就无法发动群众，这就涉及宗教问题。甘地的苦行和宗教语言以及他后期的同印度最贫苦的人一样的苦行僧打扮，都使他的政治和宗教难于分辨。这也正是当年基督和佛陀、耆那等宗教领袖所做的。我们要从实际行动考察其社会功能以定其思想，不能只看语言宣传。 甘地的行动即其斗争手段也就是他领导斗争的战略和策略。就他的行为可以看出三点策略原则，其中贯串着一个战略思想：罗马大将费边的持久渐进战略。 （1）甘地最善于利用法律小题目作大文章。南非的斗争不过是反对单独要求印度人受身份证束缚（事实上关系到全体印度人以至一切有色人种）。后来（1930年）印度的大规模抗盐税斗争也不是了不起的大题目（事实上关系到不能缺盐的广大贫苦劳动人民）。甘地在运动中从不提政治大口号作运动目标，而只以具体事件或法律为题目。他后来讲的“自治”、“独立”、“自由”等词多半是含糊其辞令人捉摸不定。如果考虑到当时印度是分裂和落后的，而要对付的是“国旗上太阳不落”的英帝国老牌殖民主义，就很容易了解这种渐进的费边式持久、迂回、拖延战略。统治着比本国人口多10倍以上的殖民地的英帝国害怕连锁反应，不愿因小失大，是有可能逐步妥协的。 （2）甘地总是在合法中进行违法。反抗身份证不登记是违法，却接受处罚入狱又是合法。甘地是律师，深通英国法律和英国人的法制心理。他决不给对方以口实和把柄。他公开活动，不搞秘密行动。他说：“我的牌都摊在桌上。”如果考虑到英国殖民主义的历史，就很容易了解，对付这个海盗加绅士的“约翰牛”最好不撕破脸。在法律范围内去破坏法律，这是律师的“高着”。英国殖民主义者是不怕（甚至欢迎）弱者动武的。必须充分估计脱下燕尾服时的流氓加海盗，最好是让他戴礼帽穿礼服谈判。他会背信弃义，但更揭穿自己，教育群众。这是避其优点而击其弱点。甘地是认识英帝国政府的骗局的。后来在伦敦的圆桌会议（1931年）证明甘地还善于进行外交谈判，身披土布周旋于燕尾服之间，坦然自若。 （3）甘地总是要团结一切人，不仅自己人，而且包括敌人在内。若作为争取对方阵营中的人以扩大他提出的“统一阵线”是可以理解的。他在《南非》一书中不忘处处提到欧洲人中的同情者，但说是扩大到一个敌人也没有就有点费解。其实他的逻辑是一贯的，不对个别人伤害而要争取反对者也服从真理。用我们习惯的说法是，使战犯变为俘虏，敌人就全部消灭了。不过甘地不用这样的措辞，而说是根本不敌视任何人。他自己实行得如此彻底，在南非受反对而被帕坦人（阿富汗人）打后要求释放打他的人，最后解除误会化敌为友。据说在被刺身死之前他还举手加额为凶手祝福。这也是他在南非时1908年就宣布了的。他为自己人中的团结统一奋斗一生。他在1932年为“不可接触者”（贱民）绝食时宣称，“我的出身是可接触者，但我自己选择做个不可接触者”。他反对教派、种姓的歧视，终于为此献出生命。 团结自己人是甘地的重要思想，一生为此奋斗而且在不断组织和教育群众中起极大作用。从在南非用救护队和协会和农场等方式到在印度组织手纺车协会都是为此目的。尤其是每次运动都着重在训练、增强、扩大群众思想和行动的组织性，而不必以大胜利结束。这可以解释他的多次受人反对的突然妥协（被刺也是为此）。从策略上看这是渐进战略的必然结果，由此才积小胜为大胜。从哲学思想说，也可以认为是印度教经典《薄伽梵歌》（神歌）教导的类似“莫问收获，但问耕耘”的原则的传统。 以上这三点是比较容易懂的，一般人难于理解的是他的斗争形式——苦行，如群众性的人狱和他个人的绝食。这是印度文化传统中一个突出点，却不是独有的。对苦行的崇拜是世界性的，不但欧洲中世纪有，旧中国也宣传“苦孝”、“苦节”等等。不可误会苦行是一般受苦；这是忍受痛苦以达到目的，用甘地的话是“自愿受苦”。具体说是，宁进监狱也不服从，宁死不屈。至于他个人的绝食，这也不是印度独有的。印度传统中宗教性的绝食如同旧中国的吃斋。中国人吃荤，吃斋就要吃素；印度人吃素，吃斋就要不吃。这是一种“仪式”，而且是有“技巧”的。因此甘地的“绝食”和一般的狱中绝食斗争还不相同。这是他回到印度以后成为领袖时的一项重要行动。从群众运动观点说，他的“绝食”是一个信号，“绝食至死”是一个加强紧急信号。印度人都明白，他们的对手英国人也明白。甘地一发信号立即引起大规模行动，直到世界上抗议。英国统治者绝不能让他这样死去。因此，这是有时代和人物等种种条件制约的，不是一般的，一般的就不一定有效，所以甘地从不要求别人也采取绝食方式，而把他的“绝食”说成“净化灵魂”的宗教方式。这类传统苦行式的公开斗争及其理论措词不易为局外人所了解。但从客观实践行动却不难理解。例如在南非似乎屈辱的妥协之后，政府背信，于是大会公开焚烧登记证表决心人狱长期斗争。在印度的抗盐税斗争中，甘地率领群众79人步行到海边去煮海水制盐以违反盐法（1930年）。这种浩浩荡荡的壮观的宗教式行动实际是发出信号，并给敌我双方以时间做准备。他沿途宣传，到达海边时动手制盐犯法，英国当局便逮捕他，这是替他发出立即行动的信号。每次一捕甘地便引起罢工、罢市、罢课、游行示威等种种抗议活动。这是双方显示力量的肉搏。当时实质上是从“自治领”到“独立”的口号的转变。运动中局势若有变动，甘地会宣布绝食，发出进一步的信号。因此甘地的苦行不是一般传说中的宗教苦行。历史上的这类大规模群众性宗教活动大概也是具有这种意义的，不能对当时的特定宗教语言做后来的一般了解。 甘地在《南非》书中专写一章论“坚持真理”不是“消极抵抗”。他说人家都认为“消极抵抗”是无武器的弱者的武器，暗含着有了武器就会改变的意思，因此这名称不能再用下去。他说“坚持真理”是强者的“灵魂力量”，自认为弱者就不能用，所以不论有无武器都一样。但他也承认运动中的人并不都这样想。看来这不需要解说。”“甘地主义者”是很少的。在南非运动中第一个入狱的印度教“学者”就未能坚持到底，不是由于受不了苦，而是由于享了福（英政府对策是处处照顾），得了荣誉后出狱当了逃兵。到第二次世界大战结束后，印度海军九艘军舰在“孟买起义”时情况大变了。在甘地等人的呼吁下，起义海军放下了武器。战争中在马来亚的“印度独立军”也解散了。但是英国不能不让印度和巴基斯坦独立，同时引起了一场流血冲突，使甘地由此去世。所以无论用什么措辞，终究是如甘地自己在《南非》末章末尾所说，“坚持真理”仍然只是“武器”。用这种眼光观察，甘地的斗争中的“苦行”和宗教活动是不难理解的。 现在对甘地的“神”做一点考察。他从不用神的具体名号而只用笼统称呼，他说“神”就是真理。在《南非》书中甘地自述他第一次感到宗教的力量是在通过那个“第四决议案”之前的大会。他听到一位领袖人物在会上对“神”宣誓，决不服从这个侮辱性的法律，这次大会终于通过了全体宣誓不服从新法案。当第一次向英国统治者交涉时提到那要求妇女按手印的条款，英国官员也震动了，终于在通过法案时取消了涉及妇女的一条。英国人不会忘记1857年印度兵的起义导火线是同宗教习俗有关的（传说是要用猪油擦枪）。甘地之所以重视对神发誓也是考虑到了这一点。在《南非》书中甘地提到的“神”和他的其他言论一样有种种含义，但有一点很清楚，他并不向神祈求。他的祈祷是另一回事，如他自己所说，“祈祷是纯粹出于需要”，如同吃饭。因为他在动摇绝望时可由祈祷得到平静。他说，本来在南非曾随基督教朋友做礼拜，却不能祈祷，不能相信。后来才感觉到“必要”。他说佛、耶稣、穆罕默德都从祈祷得到启示、觉悟。他说，如果说这是说谎，这个“谎”却给他这个“求真理的人”一种“魅力”，使他能活下去。他说“神”的存在是像几何公理一样不能证明的，只能像小孩子一样去相信。“如果我存在，神就存在。”他用的“神”字在英文中相当于“上帝”，但不只是基督教的。他在解释为何自认为印度教徒时说，他信仰《吠陀》圣典，但不认为是唯一神圣的，而且不认为圣典的每字每句都是神圣的。他说他同样信仰《圣经》、、拜火教经典。他说“神”的偶像不能引起他的崇敬感情，但他不反对，因为崇拜偶像是人性的一部分，“我们追求象征”。仅举此两处就可看出甘地对于宗教信仰是从实际需要出发的。他在《南非》书中指出，波尔人，甚至全欧洲，并不信《新约》，不听耶稣的教导，却读《旧约》，听从摩西的“以眼还眼，以牙还牙”的教导，照此行动。在《南非》书中，在叙述到运动来临以前，提到“神”不下10处，没有一处是当做至高无上的主宰而向他祈求的。这就是说，他在运动的预备期间才逐步发现宗教这个力量必须运用。宗教色彩的通用语言不但是印度人全体都听得懂，而且连欧洲人也听得懂，当然各有各的理解。我们不能忘记这是在19世纪末到20世纪初的时代，而地区是在非洲南部。 综上所述，从甘地自述的在南非的早期政治活动中考察他的政治思想，可以看出这时期所形成的是有统一核心的一个思想模式。英国资产阶级的法制思想是核心，斗争目标是印度人与英国人在同一帝国的法律中地位平等（首先是在南非巩固立足点），斗争的战略思想是费边大将的持久渐进，战术思想是力求将分裂的印度人统一起来，并争取最多的人直到包括对方在内的所有的人到一条战线上，尽量避免损失力量，就是说避免伤害，因此必须用全体能懂的语言和行为。总之，甘地的政治活动，从决策到一件小事，没有一处不是从实际出发并考察到实际效果的。他能冷静分析要打死他的帕坦人（阿富汗人）的心理和客观因素。他常会突变，前后矛盾，说情况改变，昨天是犯罪的事，情况一变，今日是髙尚行为。他由此而成功，也由此而死亡。如他所说：“对公众为服务而服务如同在刀锋上行走。”他的政治思想是出发于实际并归结于实际的、19世纪英国教育出来的、执行律师职务的、印度人的政治思想。这正是印度从1857年以后，至少是从1858年印度国民大会成立以后，印度民族资产阶级以至其他阶级、阶层绝大多数人的政治要求的体现。当时印度的政治领袖大都是一些律师或学过英国法律的，但唯有甘地能在语言和行动上使印度广大人民懂得他提出的要求因而团结到一起，因此他成为领袖，得到“圣雄”（Mahatma）即“伟大的灵魂（精神）”的称号并被呼为“父亲”（Bapuji）。他使新的资产阶级外来思想披上印度本地的外衣。 还有两点需要提到： 一是印度无政府主义者的暴力行动问题。这是20世纪初年的尖锐问题。甘地路线刚好代替了那条以暗杀和夺取武器（吉大港事件）开始的武装斗争路线，也就是当时俄国民粹派和中国同盟会的革命路线。（1931年印度国民大会会议的争论是个高潮。）历史的评价和理论的是非需要专题讨论，但为了理解甘地的政治思想和历史地位不能不注意这一点。 二是英国殖民政策问题。英国殖民主义的全部历史可以看出有两条突出的路线： 一是坚决彻底执行罗马帝国的“分而治之”纲领。二是处处培养代理人。前者的历史结果是众所周知的。后者的历史结果是英帝国主义在第二次世界大战后几乎是有秩序地从殖民地一处处撤退，并和平移交政权给接收者。英国不留下烂摊子，却总是留下分裂的种子。以人所共知的麦考莱在英国议会的著名演说为政策理论基础，1857年英女皇接管印度后立即在加尔各答（东）、孟买（西）、马德拉斯（南）建立3所大学，并且确定在印度次大陆上，从小学到大学，进行以英语为正式语言的英国式教育。（因此甘地那么重视使用本国语言。）英国的殖民政策和甘地的政治运动是相互联系的，而且可以说双方是互相了解的，每一方都是对方不可缺少的条件。历史阶段结束，双方一同离开历史舞台。 最后，关于甘地的哲学略说一点。甘地作为思想家，应当从言行甘地的哲学略说双方考察其思想。因为他的语言不是一般能照字面理解的，必须联系行动。他的理论是统一的，但言行有矛盾，又必须分开来看。他的浩瀚的言论著作，长达半个世纪以上的政治行动，数不清的对他的思想和主张的评论、研究，几乎是无法概括的。然而用我们所熟悉的哲学分类语言说，可以认为他的哲学在本体论上是唯心主义的，在认识论和方法论上却有唯物主义成分且具备一定程度的辩证法。这就是说，从他的言论以及他自己认为的思想来看，他显然是将宇宙究竟归之于精神；可是从他的行动所显示的指导思想来看，他是周密考察客观条件及变化规律并做出预测然后制定决策的，并且对转变关键和预兆信息有惊人的敏感。因此，可以说他的思想体系及核心是西方的、英国式的，而他的思想化为行动时却是东方的、印度式的。这样外东方而内西方，似乎矛盾不可解，也许是东方哲学不同于西方哲学的一个重大差别。在东方哲学传统中这类矛盾没有什么不可解，甚至是平常的。印度的《利论》（arthasastra）传统和哲学传统的关系正是这样，统一的集中表现是那部包括社会及政治各方面理论与实践的大史诗《摩诃婆罗多》。佛陀、耆那等可以说也是这样。中国的所谓“黄老”及道家哲学以及《孙子兵法》等也是这样。甚至儒家的《中庸》里也说“宽柔以教，不报无道，南方之强也，君子居之，的话。以“柔”为“强”，好比“内家”拳术。孔子的“仁”同“非暴力”（不害、戒杀）一样含糊。中国古代政治家很多“阳儒阴法”，印度政治家也可以亦“真”（实际）亦“幻”（表面），亦“东”亦“西”。若一定要用西方哲学分类语言说，这也许大致可说是客观唯心主义的一个特点吧？甘地在南非的早期言行显示出他的初步形成的政治思想正是“东方其外而西方其中”的矛盾结合模式。 1948年1月30日，印度民族独立运动领袖甘地在德里被刺身死。这时离1947年8月15日英国殖民政府移交政权而印度得到独立以后不到半年。甘地为印度独立战斗一生，却在独立成功时被本国人而且同是印度教徒的刺客当众枪杀。这不是一次简单的政治谋杀事件，也不是一个宗教狂热分子的一时冲动的行为。试看当时报载和事后文献所记的值得注意的几点情况。 刺客是在甘地照例进行晚祷的群众大会上当众开枪的。他先向甘地鞠躬行礼，似乎是表示对他一生为民族奋斗的尊敬；然后连开四枪，打死甘地。随后他并没有在群众吃惊和混乱中逃走，反而大声呼唤警察，束手就擒。在狱中，他担心的是新政府可能遵照甘地的非暴力思想不判他死刑。在法庭上，他出人意外地用一般人以为他并不精通的英语发表供词（1977年由其弟出版），竟使法官与旁听群众为之动容。他说明他是为了“印度母亲”而向这位被称为“印度父亲”的甘地执行死刑的，因为甘地没有尽“印度的父亲”之职而成了“巴基斯坦的父亲”。（这像是莎士比亚写的刺死恺撒的布鲁图斯的自辩词了。）他在1949年被判处绞刑，年纪还不到40岁。 甘地在被刺中弹倒下时口呼神名：“罗摩！罗摩！”以手加额表示为刺死他的人祝福。在10天以前——1月20日，已经有这刺客的同谋者同样在晚祷会上用炸弹行刺未逞被捕。甘地要求对谋刺者宽恕，并且拒绝警察随身保护。这以前，甘地为印巴分治问题曾做一生中最后一次“绝食至死”。由于部分问题解决而复食以后，他曾向在他晚年侍奉他的侄孙女摩奴本（Manuben）表示过厌倦生命，不想再如自己以前所说活到125岁，并且预言他将暴死以及刺客必是同教者（印度教徒）；说他如果死在病床上还成什么“圣雄”呢？他身心日衰，却又不肯停止参加照例的群众晚祷。 在行刺10天以前，那个投炸弹的刺客在行凶前就和他的老师交换过意见。他的这位老师是孟买大学教授、50年代初曾来北京大学教印地语的贾恩（JCJain）。贾恩教授立刻通知了政府。这时警方已经掌握了这个暗杀阴谋集团的材料，有了名单及合谋人的职业等等，但是德里、孟买、浦那的当局并没有采取任何预防措施。当时的副总理兼内政部长，当时阴谋集团所在地的孟买邦的内政部长，都是著名的甘地信徒。他们负责内政管治安，对于社会上已经公然传出来的要求处死甘地的口号和活动竟然视若无睹，或者是无能为力？ 在甘地去世十几年以至二十几年以后，公开出版了一些重要文献资料（此处有错误）。1971年印度政府发表了卡普尔（JLKapur）的《谋杀圣雄甘地阴谋案调查委员会报告书》六卷。1962年甘地的侄孙女摩奴本发表了《“父亲”的临终前情况略述》、《“父亲”——我的母亲》（“父亲”即Bapu，是印度人对甘地的亲切称呼）。1967年刺客的弟弟和同谋犯发表了用马拉提语写的《甘地被杀和我》。1961年贾恩教授继他以前用印地语和英语写的有关的书以后，又发表了《甘地被刺的前前后后》。1973年美国出版了塔班·高斯（TapanGhose）的书《甘地被刺案的审判》。1978年德里出版了马尔冈卡尔（M.Malgaonkar）的《刺杀甘地的人》。当时审判此案的法官之一柯斯拉（GDKhosla）于1963年在伦敦出版了《圣雄甘地被刺案》。此外，还有许多书籍和报刊文章从不同角度和不同观点论述到甘地的死，例如培恩（R.Payne）在美国出版的（1968年）。在60和70年代国际上重新论述甘地又仿佛甘地生前那样开始热闹起来。由于关于凶手的重要资料出现，原来美国好莱坞拍摄的关于甘地之死的影片《献给罗摩的九小时》（同名的书在伦敦出版，1962年）中的形象也不对了。1982年至1983年新影片《甘地》又以得国际电影奖而风行一时。 以上所说的情况不会是偶然的。这不但说明这一事件值得重视，而且证明当代人正在迫切希望了解自己，了解当代历史。 这里是想依据所见到的零散材料从文化角度分析这一案件中的两个对立面。问题是：刺客和被刺者是否在政治上代表了两种不同的现代印度文化的矛盾和冲突？引用资料除甘地言行依据他本人的原始著作外，刺客资料主要采自1980年出版的南迪的《在心理学边缘上》（AshisNandy:AttheEdgeofPsychology，1980，德里）。 英国殖民主义统治政策是印度民族主义的对立面，这里不能讨论，但不能不从此开始。1857年印度民族大起义失败，英国政府废黜莫卧儿帝国皇帝，又从东印度公司手中接过了政权而直接统治，这不是偶然的。当时英国处于维多利亚女皇时代，资产阶级政权完全成熟，新的殖民主义政策的基本路线开始形成，改变了旧的殖民主义的海盗式掠夺方式。（英国19世纪的金斯莱牧师的《西行颂》虽是历史小说，却表现了新教战胜旧教的表面掩盖着英国新殖民主义战胜西班牙旧殖民主义的实质内容。）东印度公司克莱武（1725—1774）以来的掠夺方式缺乏政治远见，继续封建时代习惯，不适合成熟的资本主义长远剥削要求。（例如使主要根据地孟加拉自1770年以来连续遭受大灾荒、大瘟疫。1770年即饿死五分之二人口，后来甚至到1943年尚有人为的大饥荒。）因此英国政府在1857年接管后，立即在殖民主义造成的三大海口新经济中心——加尔各答、孟买、马德拉斯——建立三所大学，所属有许多学院；并且建立新学制，由小学到大学全用英语教学，直接从小孩子起灌输英国文化；同时又以保护和尊重为名对旧有私塾教育同宗教习俗表示不侵犯；还设立印度文官（ICS）考试制度。这样培养代理人的精神奴役的效果，到1885年（不到30年）就出现为由一个英国退休官吏发起成立印度国民大会（国大党的最初形态），网罗受过英国文化教育而又继承旧高贵门第（种姓）的知识分子，企图利用他们在政治上为英政府效劳。这个组织后来转化为其对立面当然是英国人初料所不及的。 从东印度公司时代起，尤其是在英国政府直接统治后，在印度形成了新的知识分子阶层。首先出现的代表人物是在印度东部的孟加拉的罗易（RammohunRoy，1772—1833）。他以倡导废除于经典无据而在这灾荒频繁期间内孟加拉流行的