Chapter 12 Chapter Eleven What is Vernacular

11.1 Vernacular We talked about classical Chinese above.Classical Chinese is a strange thing, separated from spoken language, and has its own set, and it has such a long life span, has accumulated so many documents, created so many tricks, and is far away from modern language. Many people feel unfamiliar, so more pen and ink are spent.Let's talk about the vernacular.Vernacular, we are using it now, and there was it in the past, and we write it as we say it (in theory, but there are still problems in practice, which will be discussed in the next chapter). Many aspects are not as complicated as classical Chinese, and there seems to be nothing to talk about .In fact, there are many problems.The main problem is that it should part ways with classical Chinese, but it sometimes mixes with classical Chinese.Mixed together, the identity is not clear, and if you want to explain it, you will suffer from being unable to be decisive.Determining the identity is quite difficult, but in order to be able to target the target, we must have a general understanding of what kind of language the so-called vernacular is.

11.1.1 Definition of Vernacular Vernacular, like classical Chinese, both refer to written language, and why it is so limited, has been discussed in Section 1.2.2 above.This kind of written vernacular is not difficult to define. When classical Chinese gradually departs from spoken language, becomes fixed, and becomes dominant or even overwhelmingly dominant in writing, then the spoken language at that time is called vernacular.The vernacular, spoken, is of course the oldest; the same can be said for the handwritten.However, the definition says that it is after classical Chinese has taken shape. This is because, if there is no classical Chinese, the written form will be written in spoken language. Although it is vernacular, there is no need to call it vernacular.This means, as mentioned in the first section of this book, there is a dependent relationship between classical Chinese and vernacular in terms of names: without classical Chinese, there is no need to call written language written according to spoken language vernacular; without vernacular, there is no need to call written language that is divorced from spoken language Classical Chinese.

With this understanding, the early written language mentioned in the second chapter above, oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, "Shangshu" and "Spring and Autumn" should be more easily resolved.Oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, and "Shangshu" belong to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. It is presumed that they were all written according to the spoken language or abbreviated slightly according to the spoken language. "Spring and Autumn" and the like are relatively late, and we cannot know exactly how far it is from the spoken language at that time.Assuming that the distance is also very small or not far away, then, according to the above regulations, we can say that these are not vernacular, because classical Chinese has not yet been finalized.This is the negation of the negative side.On the positive side, it must be all classical Chinese, so we have to find another reason.In the second chapter we said that we follow common sense, that is, follow the customs. Now that the vernacular has a definition, it seems that we can strengthen it a bit. Say these are classical Chinese.It is as if the children and grandchildren have prospered, and the father and grandparents have borrowed light to get the gift, so they can be called the teacher and the like.

Another advantage of defining vernacular and emphasizing its opposition to classical Chinese is that there is a clearer basis for identifying vernacular.The method is to look at the vocabulary, syntax, charm and other aspects. Obviously, what is different from classical Chinese is vernacular, and vice versa, it is not vernacular.Naturally, when you really try to distinguish, you will inevitably encounter something that seems to be different but not obvious. How to deal with this is left to the discussion in Chapter Fourteen below. 11.1.2 Features of the vernacular Features are the product of comparison, and only comparison makes it more necessary to describe.The fifth chapter above introduces the characteristics of classical Chinese, mainly from the different aspects from the vernacular.Now to introduce the characteristics of the vernacular, of course, we must also focus on the differences from the classical Chinese.Section 11.1 above says that many aspects of vernacular are not as complex as classical Chinese.This is because it is written in colloquial language, and colloquial language is commonplace, if a little elaborate.Also, although there are great differences between classical Chinese and vernacular Chinese, there are also some similarities, such as font shape and pronunciation, which have already been mentioned before, so of course there is no need to repeat them.There are roughly the following aspects that can be talked about.One, of course, is the difference in vocabulary and syntax.There are a large number of words and expressions in the vernacular, which are not used in the classical Chinese.This kind of phenomenon can be clearly felt no matter if you look at the vernacular of the Middle Ages or the vernacular of modern times.Examples are of course everywhere, so here are just a few.Let me talk about vocabulary first. "Historical Records Chen She's Family" records that after Chen She became king, an old acquaintance came to see him when he was poor. When he entered the palace, he was surprised to see Chen She's wealth and said: "Hey! She is king Shen Chen Those." Huo Yi is an interjection, it is in the vernacular, and it is not used in classical Chinese except for the picture and sound.Another example is "Shishuoxinyu·Qiaoyi", which records that Gu Kaizhi's paintings are not eye-catching. People asked him, and he said: "The vivid portrayal is in the middle of Adu." Except for picture sound, it is not used in classical Chinese.Later, for example, "Jingben Popular Novels Xishan A Cave Ghost" said that Wu Xiucai "has nothing to worry about", and nothing, what and money are all vernacular, and they are not used in classical Chinese.A large number of words in modern vernacular, especially new or newly borrowed words, such as macro and feedback, have nothing to do with classical Chinese, and everyone knows this.Let's talk about syntax.The same meaning, in another way of saying the vernacular, examples can be seen everywhere.For example, there are two sentences in "Jingben Popular Novel Xishan A Cave Ghost": "All the children come to teach him a lesson", "Go and come in alone", both of which are not found in the syntax of classical Chinese.Modern vernacular, such as putting words, two verbs with an object, using the particle "得" to draw complements, etc., are also not found in classical Chinese.There are still many translations in modern vernacular, most of which are very exotic, so they are farther away from classical Chinese.In addition, the way of expressing tone, the difference between vernacular and classical Chinese is more obvious, which has been mentioned in Section 2.3.3 above and will not be repeated.

The second is the group of people related to the work, with different classes.From the point of view of the author and readers, most of the people associated with classical Chinese are from the upper class, and those associated with vernacular (with the exception of modern vernacular) are mostly from the lower class.The reason is very simple. In the eyes of people in the old days, classical Chinese and vernacular were divided into refined and vulgar. Temples and scholars should use elegant ones, while chariot sellers can only use vulgar ones.If you look at the archives, this difference will be more obvious. Nine out of ten authors of classical Chinese are officials of one kind or another; Those who left their names, such as Luo Guanzhong, Shi Naian, etc., are also unknown.Even Cao Xueqin, who came from an aristocratic family, was no exception. If the Cao family did not fall, or if he became a high-ranking official such as Shangshu or Shilang, he would not be able to write.As for the readers, or those who appreciate it more, the class distinction is also obvious.Volume 1 of Su Shi's "Dongpo Zhilin" records: "The children in Tu (Road) Lane are inferior, and their families hate the hardships, so they often sit with Qian Ling and listen to old stories." Sentences, and books such as "Tokyo Menghualu" and "Capital Jisheng" have recorded the situation of storytellers in Washi (also known as Washe). It can be seen that the place for telling novels is limited to villages and markets. Listen.After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, novels became more popular, and some scholars and bureaucrats turned from ignorance to disgust.For example, Zhou Lianggong wrote "Shadow of Books" in the early Qing Dynasty. At the beginning, he recorded his father's family precept-style work "Forty Auspicious Phases of Viewing Houses". People say that Huang Luzhi wrote obscene words and used evil words to sway people's hearts. His crime is not to stop falling into the evil way. Recently, novelists are more than just obscene words! It is very retribution, everyone has seen it for themselves. If there is a piece of paper or a word on the desk, it should be burned But. Bad intentions, mourning and deeds are all lured by these books." This Duke of Zhou has no power, so the burning is limited to his own desk. As for the royal family, from Shunzhi to Tongzhi, almost all dynasties have banned it, burning the whole country.The above is to say that there is a gap in class.But this gap is not insurmountable, because the vernacular, a tool for expressing ideas, can not only tell stories, but also tell philosophy.This refers to quotations, which originated from monks’ lectures on Zen. Confucianists in the Song and Ming Dynasties learned them and used them to talk about the principles of nature. Great monks and Neo Confucianists are of course all high-level figures.In addition, people's hearts are different, and each is like its own face. Especially in modern times, there will be a small number of upper-class people who love so-called vulgar literature, such as Yu Yue's revisions and Liu E's writings.

The third is the difference in the slow speed of development and change.When we talked about classical Chinese earlier, we often talked about setting shape, which means that it is like this in a certain period of time, and it will still be like this in the future; even if there are changes, they are sporadic.The vernacular has no such stereotypes.The reason is obvious, because it has to be written according to the spoken language, and as the spoken language changes, it has to follow the changes.Before the Tang Dynasty, we could hardly see pure vernacular, so we can ignore it.After the Tang Dynasty, there are still some vernacular scripts of the Song and Yuan dynasties, which are both pure and complete, and can be used as representatives of the vernacular of that period.When we read it now and compare it with others, we will find that the charm is quite different, and if we compare it with others, the difference will be even greater.Classical Chinese changes slowly because not only old ones can be used, but also old ones can be used happily. For example, crown ceremony is no longer acceptable. People in Ming and Qing Dynasties wrote in classical Chinese to indicate adulthood, and they also called weak crown or already crowned. Otherwise, it seems not enough elegant.The vernacular basically cannot copy the old ones like this, such as "must——" and "——zege" can be seen everywhere in the vernacular, and they are not used in the vernacular, and of course they cannot be used in the vernacular.Speaking of this point, vernacular Chinese has a stronger personality than classical Chinese, and it always has different faces in different periods.Fourth, the coexistence of classical Chinese and vernacular will inevitably influence each other, but the influence

The size of the words is different: the classical Chinese is big, and the vernacular is small.Taking international trade as a metaphor, classical Chinese exports more to vernacular and imports less, and vernacular to classical Chinese exports less and imports more.Of course there is a reason for this. People who write in classical Chinese generally think that vernacular is vulgar; many people who write in vernacular can also know classical Chinese, or because of necessity or unconsciously, it is easy to show classical Chinese tricks in their writing.Scholar-bureaucrats who are accustomed to using classical Chinese sometimes use vernacular. Individually, the situation varies greatly; generally, there are two situations that come to my mind.One is to compose poems (mainly imitating Yuefu folk songs), compose lyrics (mainly in the early days), and use some vernacular or relatively popular prose.Because this style of writing comes from the folk, strictly speaking, using the vernacular in this way is to preserve rather than absorb.The other is the Gongan school in the late Ming Dynasty and Li Yu, Jin Shengtan, Zheng Xie, etc. who were influenced by it. Because they advocated and expressed that writing should be written directly from the heart, some vernacular is sometimes mixed in classical Chinese.This kind of vernacular is the nature of side dishes at the banquet. Although they are on the table, their status is not high.As for the opposite side, the influence of classical Chinese on vernacular Chinese is much greater.Just give some examples.One is to use some classical Chinese sayings in the vernacular.For example, Zhang Junrui's confession in the first chapter is of course in vernacular, but it contains words such as "I am a native of Xiluo", "Xiaosheng's calligraphy and sword are floating", "The snow case on the fluorescent window, scratched and polished", "He If you get it every day, you will have great ambitions", this is some literary gossip hidden in Baizhong.The other is to play tricks on classical Chinese in vernacular.For example, "Pomo Bianwen" uses a lot of parallel couplets:

I wish to hang on the day of Shun forever, to protect the year of Yao forever, to extend the city of Fengfeng for thousands of years, and to protect the dragon map for long live.Fu Wei, the master and servant of our mansion, is full of spiritual resources and direct spirit, Yue Jiang's heroic spirit, with deep benevolence in helping things, and rich business of regulating Yuan.Pass the door to the door, raise the people, follow the clear rules of the number of countries, and the importance of water and soil.Since Linjing Township, the house is like spring, and the songs of good governance have been spread to celebrate the transformation of peace.To be rich at the age of age, to manage the tranquility of the environment.The grain accumulated in the mountains is stored in the rivers and streams, and the sound of selling prices is spread in Jingyi.I would like to praise the merits and deeds, and enshrine the majesty of my mansion, Situ.I hope that the Honghe River will recover again, and the flowing water will circle the universe; the purple ribbon will last for a thousand years, and the meritorious deeds will help the community.The second general praised the meritorious deeds and honored the solemn mother of the country, Princess Shengtian.Fuyuan Zhugui in the south of the mountain, the same four seasons; cold plum in the north of the Lingbei, thriving alone. (Volume 4 of "Dunhuang Bian Anthology" edited by Wang Chongmin and others)

There is also a large number of quotations from classical Chinese works (often poems) in the vernacular.For example, "Jingben Popular Novels" and "Nianyu Guanyin" quote eleven poems before entering the words; "A Ghost in the Xishan Cave" starts with a collection of sentences and words, and then cites the source of each sentence, citing a total of seventeen poems It is a common technique in all kinds of novels to use poems in the story for the finishing touch.Such a large number of quotations is of course because both the author and the readers believe that only in this way can the writing be beautiful and the key points highlighted.In addition, there is another kind of influence that is more affected, which is to simply use or mostly use simple classical Chinese.The most typical example is, as in the opening paragraph:

Speaking of the general trend of the world, the long-term division must be united, and the long-term union must be divided: the seven kingdoms at the weekend were divided and merged into Qin; and after Qin was destroyed, Chu and Han were divided and merged into Han; The Han Dynasty revolted from the ancestor Gaozu who cut the white snake, and unified the world. Later, Guangwu Zhongxing was passed on to Emperor Xiandi, and then divided into three kingdoms.The reason why it caused the chaos almost began with the two emperors Huan and Ling.Emperor Huan imprisoned good people and worshiped eunuchs.When Emperor Huan died, Emperor Ling ascended the throne, and the generals Dou Wu and Taifu Chen Fan assisted each other; sometimes eunuchs Cao Jie and others took power, and Dou Wu and Chen Fan tried to kill him. Since then, Juan has gotten worse.

Although this is not enough for authentic classical Chinese, as a work of the Huaben system, the smell of classical Chinese is always too strong. Fifth, classical Chinese generally surpasses dialects; vernacular is not the case. Although most of them use so-called official Chinese, they often cannot separate from dialects.The reason is anyone can think of: Classical Chinese can be separated from the spoken language and become independent, and if it is independent, it is not bound by the spoken language;When classical Chinese has not yet been finalized, dialect may occupy a place in written language. We can find some traces of this in "Chu Ci", "Erya" and Yang Xiong's "Dialect".After it was finalized, there was almost no possibility of dialect infiltration, and classical Chinese became the lingua franca of all dialect areas, so Gu Yanwu of Jiangsu could communicate with Fu Shan of Shanxi with pen and ink.The vernacular is written according to the spoken language. Strictly speaking, even the vernacular written in official Chinese cannot be without some dialect elements.But generally the amount is not large, or it is not as obvious as standing out from the crowd, so it doesn't matter.There are more obvious ones, such as Shandong dialect in "Jin Ping Mei Ci Hua"; Suzhou dialect is used in the dialogue part; Suzhou, Shanghai and other places are mixed.In opera, this phenomenon is even more prominent. For example, local operas such as modern Yueju opera and Sichuan opera all use dialects, which is known to all. Finally, you can also compare the difficulty of understanding.Comparing modern vernacular with classical Chinese, of course classical Chinese is difficult, while vernacular is easy.It seems that the same can be said for the Song and Yuan Dynasties and earlier ones, but it cannot be generalized.Because we only talk about difficulties (referring to uncommon words and sayings), classical Chinese is difficult, there is a limit, and most of them can follow the old path; vernacular is not the case, but there is no limit, and if you want to understand it, you often suffer from nowhere to check .For example, "Bao Canjun Collection" and "Bao Canjun Collection" are both works in the early years of the Southern Dynasties. The former is pure classical Chinese, while the latter is mixed with some vernacular. When we read it now, we always feel that the former has fewer problems and the latter has more problems. Even if we refer to the old notes, some of the Southern Dynasties It is often difficult to figure out what the spoken language actually means.The same is true of Song and Yuan vernacular, that is, "no need to exist", we are still quoting it now, what does it mean?There was more than one person who explained it, and Mr. Lu Shuxiang did not seem to get the consent of the majority until Mr. Lu Shuxiang interpreted it as "I am afraid there is" or "Don't have it" (Article 2 of "Chinese Miscellaneous Notes").In fact, some words in the vernacular are difficult to understand, which many people have felt for a long time, so some books on interpretation have been published in the past, such as Qian Daxin's "Hengyanlu", Zhai Hao's "Popular Edition", Zhang Xiang's "Poetry, Lyrics and Songs". Annotation of Words and Glossary, Lu Danan's Glossary of Words and Words in Fiction, etc.But after all, the entries are limited and cannot solve all the problems that may be encountered. 11.2 The staging of the vernacular The staging can be strict, but it should be based on the changes in spoken language.But in this regard, we don't know much, and, before the Tang and Song Dynasties, there were not many materials that can be used as examples.As a last resort, we have to rely on the historical situation of the literature (or the situation of the vernacular forces) as the basis.Considering this, we can divide the vernacular into three periods.Let’s talk about the upper limit first.During the Han Dynasty, classical Chinese had its shape and could be used as an upper limit.Before Qin, the problem was complicated.For example, in "Zuo Zhuan", the second year of Xuan Gong, the city builders of the Song Dynasty laughed at the defeated Hua Yuan, and eulogized: "Yu Si Yu Si, abandoning armor and returning." This should be recorded according to oral language.However, it is also recorded, such as "Mencius Gongsun Chou Shang" quoted the words of Qi people: "Although there is wisdom, it is better to take advantage of the situation; although there is a foundation, it is better to wait for the time." We are not good at insisting that it is vernacular.Because it seems to have been polished, and in this way, the boundary between classical Chinese and vernacular is even more blurred.The problem stems from the fact that classical Chinese had not yet been finalized at that time, or at least because we did not know what to do, we had to start with the Han Dynasty.The lower limit of the first period is the Sui and Tang Dynasties.This first period of vernacular is characterized by its status as a "vassal", or hidden in the sea of ​​classical Chinese, as is the case with "Hui Yi" quoted in the previous section, and the same is true of Yuefu folk songs.The second period is from the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The characteristic of the vernacular is that it has achieved an "independent" status. Typical examples are long and short vernacular novels, northern and southern operas, and various popular literature works. The printed versions are all single-line.The third period is modern vernacular, starting around the May Fourth Movement, the lower limit cannot be predicted of course.The vernacular in this issue is characterized by its "dominance" status, because classical Chinese has become an antique and is no longer used as a tool for communicating affection.Each issue has its own vernacular, that is to say, has its own connotation and characteristics, which are left to Chapter 15 for example introduction.