Chapter 4 Chapter 4 Passion and Delirium

The savage perils of madness are connected with the perils of passion, their series of fatal consequences. Sauvages had long ago outlined the basic role of passion as the more constant, more persistent, and in some ways more effective cause of madness: the disorder of our minds is our blind submission to our desires , We cannot control and calm the consequences of our feelings.From this are deliriums, disgusts, bad habits, melancholy caused by sentimentality, rage after rejection, overeating, depression, and vices of all kinds that give rise to the worst disease of all, madness.However, what is said here is only the primary role and responsibility of passion in morals, and it is expressed very vaguely.And this criticism is actually aimed at the fundamental connection between the phenomenon of madness and emotional changes.

Before Descartes and after his influence as philosopher and physiologist waned, the passions had been the meeting point of body and soul.Here, the active soul comes into contact with the passive body, while each confines the other and limits the scope of mutual communication. The theory of humoral medicine holds that this combination is primarily an interaction: "Passion necessarily causes a certain movement of the humors: anger stimulates the bile, sadness stimulates the melancholic juice (black bile). The humoral movements are sometimes so intense that they cause a movement of the whole body system." Disorder, and even death. Passion, moreover, increases the humors. Anger increases the bile, sorrow increases the melancholy. The humors are usually stimulated by certain emotions. In turn, the humors make those who are rich in humors subject to these emotions, Preoccupation with objects that usually irritate them. Cholerics are prone to anger and fixation on what they hate. Melancholics are prone to sentimentality and fixation on unpleasant things. Sanguines are prone to joy."

The theory of vitality medicine replaces the above-mentioned ambiguous concept of "temperament" with a stricter concept of physical and mechanical transmission of motion.If passions can only arise in a being with a body, and this body is not entirely at the mercy of the signals of its brain and the direct command of its will, it is because the movements of the brain are subject to a certain mechanical structure, That is, the structure of vitality movement.It is independent of our will, and usually against our will. "Before the object of passion is seen, the animal energy is dispersed throughout the body to hold the various parts of the body; but when a new object appears, the whole system is disrupted. Most of the energy is sent to the arms, legs, face, and parts of the body. In the muscles of the outer part, the main emotion is produced in the body, so that the body has the calmness and movement needed to pursue good and avoid evil." "This is how passion adjusts vitality, and vitality obeys passion. That is to say, in Under the action of passion, at the presence of the object of passion, the qi circulates, disperses and concentrates according to a spatial design that approves the object's orbit in the brain and image in the soul, thereby forming a kind of The geometric figure of passion. This figure is only the expressive transformation of passion. But it also forms the basis of the basic cause of passion. For when the whole energy is assembled around the object of this passion, or at least the image of this object, thought is It is no longer possible to ignore it, and thus submit to passion.

Going a step further, the whole system becomes a unity in which body and soul communicate directly with each other with symbolic values ​​of a common nature.This is what was said in the medicine of solids and fluids that dominated 18th century practice.Tension and relaxation, hardness and softness, rigidity and relaxation, fullness and dryness, these qualitative states are used to describe the soul as well as the self, but chiefly they signify a vague and complex state of passion.This state of passion can actively influence the associative processes of ideas, emotional processes, nervous states and fluid circulation.The concept of causality here is too blunt, and the factors it induces are not connected with each other, so they cannot be applied to the schema of causality. Are "positive feelings such as anger, joy, and lust" the cause or effect of "excessive energy, excessive tension, overflexible nerve fibers, overactive nervous fluid"?Conversely, can it not be considered that "depressed emotions, such as fear, depression, lethargy. Loss of appetite, apathy from homesickness, queer partial eclipse, dullness, forgetfulness" are "weakness of the brain and the nerve fibers that distribute in various organs, nervous Cause or effect of insufficient fluid supply and blockage? (We should indeed stop trying to place passion in some causal relationship, or between body and spirit. Passion marks, on a new and deeper level, an enduring metaphorical relationship between mind and body In this relation there is no need to communicate their natures, for the nature of both is common. In this relation the appearance of manifestations is not the cause, for mind and body are always the direct expression of each other. The passions are no longer strictly in the The geometric center of the body and soul complex is rather in the region where the opposition of the two has not yet been formed, but the unity and difference of the two have been definite.

But at this level, passion is no longer simply one of the great causes of madness, but becomes the basis of its occurrence.If there is a sphere in which cause and effect, determination and manifestation, are still intertwined in the relation of soul to body, and thus constitute in fact one and the same indissoluble movement; Before the relaxation of nerves and brain, there are some antecedent properties not yet shared by soul and body, which will subsequently assign the same value to organism and mind, and we shall see that diseases such as madness, from the first These are the diseases of the body and the soul, in which the diseases of the brain have the same characteristics, the same cause, the same essence, in short, the same as the diseases of the soul.

The possibility of madness is therefore implied in the phenomenon of passion. It is true that passion and madness were closely linked long before the eighteenth century, many centuries before modern man appeared.However, we still take the classical period as its beginning period.Moralists of the Greco-Latin tradition considered madness to be the punishment of the passions.To further confirm this, they prefer to define passion as a temporary, slight madness.But classical thought does not prescribe the relation of passion to madness on the basis of some pious hope, some instructive threat, some moral system.It even breaks with tradition and reverses the traditional logical relationship.It makes the passionate nature the basis of delusions of madness.It argues that the determinism of the passions merely offers the opportunity for madness to enter the world of reason.And if the unmistakable union of body and soul shows the limits of man's passions, it simultaneously confronts him with an infinite movement which destroys him.

Madness, then, is not just one of the possibilities offered by the union of mind and body.Nor is it entirely one of the consequences of passion.The unity of mind and body makes madness, but madness turns against this unity and brings it into doubt again and again.Passion makes madness possible, but madness threatens with a peculiar movement the conditions that make passion itself possible.Madness belongs to that class of unity in which the law is compromised, perverted, and destroyed, thereby showing that the unity is both manifest and certain, and at the same time fragile and doomed. There comes a moment in the course of the passion when the law seems to be momentarily invalidated for its own sake, and the movement of the passion either ceases abruptly without the impact or attraction of any active force, or is protracted and stops at the climax of the outburst.White admits that, just as shocks can cause motion, so violent emotions can cause madness, for emotions are both shocks in the soul and tremors of nerve fibers: "A tragic or moving story, a scene of terrible and unexpected, anguish, great pain. Temper tantrums, terrors, and other powerful emotions often give rise to sudden and intense neurotic symptoms." Strictly speaking, this is where madness begins; stagnation leading to death.In the mechanism of madness, it seems that calm is not necessarily the absence of symptoms, but rather violent movements, which are too violent to continue because they suddenly contradict each other. "It is sometimes heard that very strong passions produce a kind of tonic convulsion or catalepsy, which makes a man become like a statue rather than a living person. What is more, excessive fear, distress, Joy and shame have more than once led to death."

On the other hand, sometimes the movement from soul to body and from body to soul spreads infinitely in some place of anxiety; this place is closer to what is called the space in which the soul rests on the Malebranche, whereas It is not the space where Cartesian puts the body.These tiny movements, often caused by slight external shocks, accumulate and intensify, and finally erupt into violent spasms.Lancisi had already explained why Roman nobles often suffered from depression.He pointed out that the reason for their frequent hysterical attacks and suspected diseases was that in court life "their minds were constantly stimulated by alternate fears and hopes, and there was never a moment of peace." Many doctors believed that urban life, Life at court or in the salons drives one mad, because a multitude of stimuli are constantly accumulating, protracted and reversed, never lessened.But in this imagery, in its stronger forms, in the series of events that make up its organic form, there is a growing force capable of leading to a transition, as if the movement had not only failed to communicate its power It wears out gradually, and can involve other forces and absorb new vitality from them.Sauvage explains the origin of madness in this way: certain impressions of fear are connected with swelling or compression of certain myelinated fibres.Because the swelling is entirely localized, the fear is limited to a certain subject.The longer this fear lasts, the more the soul pays attention to it, the more it isolates and distracts from other things.But this isolation reinforces the fear.The soul which gives special status to fear gradually tends to attach to it some indirect idea: "It combines this simple thought with all the ideas which can strengthen it. For example, a person in sleep thinks that he is charge of a crime, he will associate this idea with other related things—the judge, the executioner, the gallows.” This idea has an additional value because it adds new elements and makes them enter its own process. the power of.This new power eventually made it possible to overwhelm even the best efforts of the will.

In the phenomenon of the passions, in the unfolding of a double causality—from the passion itself, both to the body and to the soul—madness finds its first condition.At the same time, madness is the cessation of passion, the rupture of causality, the dissolution of unity.Madness participates both in the movement of the necessity of passion and in the frantic activity of that which is unleashed by this passion, but which transcends it and ultimately challenges its full meaning.Madness ends up being a movement of nerves and muscles.To such an intensity that nothing seems to correspond to it in the operations of imagery, thought, and will.Such is the case with mania.It either suddenly intensifies into a convulsion or becomes a constant frenzy.Conversely, madness also creates and maintains an endless and irrepressible agitation of the mind while the body is calm and torpid.This is the case with depression.The patient's impression of external objects is different from that of healthy people. "His impressions are faint. He is almost deaf to them. His mental son is wholly absorbed in the workings of certain minds."

It is true that the disjunction between the external movements of the body and the activities of the mind does not mean that the unity of mind and body necessarily disintegrates, nor does it imply that each operates independently in madness.Undoubtedly, the vitality and integrity of this unity would be compromised, but it finally showed that its division did not lead to its abolition but to its arbitrary division into different parts.For example, when a melancholia is obsessed with an off-track thought, it is not just the soul that is involved, but the soul connected to the brain, the soul connected to the nerves, nerve origins, nerve fibers.In short, an integral part of the unity of spirit and body is divorced from the whole, and especially from the organ through which reality is perceived.The same is the case with convulsions and agitation: the soul is not detached from the body, but is so violently rushed by it that it cannot sustain all its mental faculties; , and thus detached from itself, from all stable elements in the body, and obeyed the fickleness of nerve-fibers; it therefore responded without any regard for reality, truth, without any deliberate consideration; , but the patient cannot tell the difference between the two. "The jerky impulses or other disturbances make the nerves feel the same movement (as in perception); they represent the phantasy as if they were objects, which they are not."

In madness the whole of body and mind is divided: not according to the metaphysical constituents of the whole, but according to the images which govern certain parts of the body and certain ideas of the soul. Absurd unity.Fragments of this kind detach man from himself, and above all from reality.This fragment, by its own dissociation, forms an illusion of unreality, and by virtue of the independence of this illusion imposes illusion on truth. "Madness is nothing but a disorder of the imagination." In other words, although madness starts from passion, it is still a violent movement in the rational unity of soul and body.This is movement on an irrational level.But this violent movement soon loses the rationality of the mechanism and becomes an irrational movement by its crude, insensible and meaningless proliferation.It is at this time that the unreal emerges free from the real and its constraints. Thus we find the thread of a third evolution that we must now trace: the evolution of fantasy, hallucination, and fallacy—the evolution of non-being. Let us hear what is said in these whimsical fragments. Imagination is not madness.Even if insanity finds its first avenue to its illusory freedom in the fanciful illusions, madness does not begin here when the mind is caught in this arbitrariness and becomes the captive of this apparent freedom.A man may say after waking up from a dream: "I thought I was dead." By saying this, he is denying and correcting the arbitrary nature of the imagination.He's not crazy.But he is a madman when he thinks that this neutral image—"I'm dead"—has some truth.Moreover, since the sense of truth is not lost merely in the existence of this image, but in the act of limiting, comparing, unifying or dissolving it, madness, therefore, can only be lost in the act of giving true meaning to this imagination. start.Imagination itself is innocent: "Imagination itself does not err, because it neither negates nor affirms, but is only terribly caught in the brooding of an image." Only the mind can transform what is produced in this image into A perverted truth, a fallacy or admitted fallacy: "A drunkard will see one candle as two candles. A man with a cross-eyed but trained mind, though he may also see two candles, will immediately Realize your error, and accustom yourself to seeing only one candle." Madness thus occurs outside the imagination, but is deeply rooted in it.For madness manifests itself entirely in the fact that it allows this imagery to have an automatic value, that is, total and absolute truth.A rational person will always make a judgment on the authenticity of a mental image, whether it is right or wrong.This kind of behavior goes beyond the mental image, and relies on other things to surpass and measure the mental image.And the behavior of the madman never goes beyond the existing mental image, but yields to his intuition and affirms it only within its limits: "Many, if not all, of those who are insane People just pay too much attention to an object." Gravity However, although madness exists in the mental image, it is concentrated on the mental image, and cannot get rid of the mental image, but madness is not entirely imagination, but constitutes a behavior with vague connotations. What is this behavior?It is an act of belief, an act of affirmation and denial, that is, a discourse of discourse.This kind of discourse both sustains and at the same time erodes and destroys the mental image, expanding it in a process of reasoning and organizing it around a linguistic fragment.A person imagines in his sleep that he is made of glass.He's not crazy.Because any deep sleeper may have this mental image in a dream.But if he believes that he is made of glass and therefore concludes that he is brittle and brittle, cannot touch anything hard, should stand still, etc., then he is mad.This reasoning is that of a madman.But we must point out that these reasonings are neither absurd nor illogical.Instead, they fit perfectly into a strict logical format.Paul Zacchias easily finds these strict forms of reasoning in madmen.One man used the syllogism in his reasoning about starving himself: "Dead men don't eat. I am a dead man, so I don't eat." A man with persecution paranoia used the phrase from particular to general. Induction: "A, B, and C are my enemies. They are all human beings, therefore every human being is my enemy." Another madman uses the elliptical syllogism: "Most of the people who have lived in this house are dead I have lived in this house, and I am therefore dead." This uncanny logic of the madman seems to mock the logic of the logician, since the two are very similar, or rather completely Also, because in the hidden core of madness, in the depths of innumerable fallacies and illogical sayings and actions, we finally find a hidden and complete language.Zakia concludes: "In these things you can indeed see the best way to talk about intelligence." The underlying language of madness is the language of reason, but this rational language is shrouded in eminent mental imagery and is therefore limited to It appears within the scope of the phenomenon stipulated by the mental image.It forms, outside the whole of the imagery and the universal discourse, a peculiar structure which is abused, the striking quality of which is madness.Therefore, madness does not consist entirely in mental images, because mental images themselves are neither true nor false, sane or crazy.Madness also does not exist in reasoning, because reasoning is only a formality, and can only reveal unquestionable logical patterns.But madness also exists in imagery and reasoning, in a special relationship between them. Let us consider an example given by Diemerbroek.A man suffered from severe depression.His mind is completely stuck in a fixed idea.This thought often made him mourn.He accused himself of killing his son.In a state of great guilt he declared that God had sent to tempt him in punishment for him by a devil like the one that had tempted God.He saw the devil, talked to the devil, and answered the devil's questions.He didn't understand why the people around him didn't acknowledge this kind of thing.This kind of guilt, self-confidence, hallucinations and talking, is the expression of madness.In short, this combination of belief and mental imagery constitutes a delusion.Diemerbroek is trying to find the "reason" of this madness, how it happened.His conclusion: the man had taken his son in the bath, and his son had drowned.From then on, the father felt responsible for his son's death.So, we can reconstruct the crazy process: this person thinks he is guilty, and thinks that this kind of murder is unforgivable in the eyes of God.From this he began to imagine that he would be cast into hell.Because he knew that the main pain of being condemned to hell was to be handed over to Satan, he told himself "a terrible devil was sent to haunt him." He didn't see the devil, but because "he kept thinking about it ", "I think this concept must be true", so he forced this devil's mental image into his head.This image is presented to the soul by the continuation of the brain and spirit, which convinces him that he is continually seeing the devil himself. According to Diemerbrock's analysis, there are two levels of madness.One layer is obvious, namely the melancholia of a man who falsely accuses himself of killing his son;But at another, deeper level, we find a rigorous structure.This structure rests on an unassailable discourse.Such discourse possesses a firm confidence in logic.It unfolds in closely linked judgment and reasoning.It is an active reason.In short, there is a secret delusional order beneath the chaotic and obvious leadership.The second kind of delirium is in a sense a kind of pure reason.And this rationality produces the appearance of dementia.In this delirium lies the paradoxical truth of madness.There is a double meaning here.We seem to have found here both what makes madness truth (irrefutable logic, well-constructed discourse, the unassailable clarity of a practical language) and what makes it true madness (The nature of madness, the specific style of madness's expression, and the inner structure of Gean). On a deeper level, this delusional language is the mode of structure of madness, the decisive element of all manifestations of madness, body or soul, and therefore the fundamental truth of madness.For example, the reason why the melancholics analyzed by Diemerbroek talk to the devil is that the image of the devil has been deeply inscribed by psychomotor in the plastic brain.But this organic image is only the other side of a certain prejudice that haunts the patient's mind.What it embodies is the accumulation in the flesh of an infinitely repeated discourse—the discourse of God's certainty to punish the murderer.The body and the traces it conceals, the soul and the mental images it feels are here no more than levels in the syntax of delusional language. To avoid the accusation that our entire analysis revolves around an observation by one author (which is a special case because it concerns melancholic delirium), we will use the Another discourse, if not of other illnesses, affirms the fundamental role of the discourse of grace in the classical conception of madness.This is the example of "female obscenity" studied by Bienville.There was a young girl named Juliet whose imagination had been excited by some premature reading, and was intensified by hearing the remarks of a young maid.This maid "knows the secret of Venus for the first time, .Juliet fought these novel desires with all the impressions she had acquired in her education.She counters the provocative language in the novel with religious and moral knowledge.Notwithstanding the activeness of her imagination, she was safe from illness so long as she possessed "a faculty of reasoning which convinces herself that it is neither lawful nor immoral to yield to such shameful passions."However, she heard more and more obscenities and read more and more seductive words.These things agitate the ever more fragile nerves every moment.Later the basic language she used as a weapon of resistance gradually failed: "At first only nature spoke. But hallucinations, whims, and delusions were soon at work. At last she unfortunately acquired a power to confirm to herself this terrible maxim." : There is nothing sweeter and sweeter in the world than obedience to lust." This basic discourse opens the door to madness: the imagination is set free, the desires expand, the nerves reach a feverish pitch.Delirium, which strictly embodies a certain moral principle, directly leads to convulsions, which may endanger life itself. This last evolution begins with the liberation of hallucinations and ends with strict delusional language.At the end of this evolution, we can draw the following conclusions: 1.In the classical period, there were two kinds of delirium in madness.One is a symptom specific to certain mental illnesses, especially depression.In this sense, we can say that some diseases are accompanied by delirium and some diseases are not accompanied by delirium.But in any case this greeting is always evident and forms an integral part of the characterization of madness.It is inherent in the truth of madness and forms part of it.But there is another kind of delirium, which is not always obvious.It is not articulated by the patient himself during the illness.But no one who traces the disease to its roots and seeks to articulate its secrets and truths cannot fail to see its presence. 2.This hidden delusion exists in all the movements of the mind, even in the most improbable places.Classical thought was convinced that in cases of mere silent gestures, wordless rages, and erratic behavior, there was an immediate and continuous operation of madness behind it, thereby linking these particular characterizations to the general substance of madness .James (James) clearly advocated in the "Dictionary of Medicine" that "any patient who makes any rational and decent, excessive or wrong intentional behavior" should be regarded as in a state of delirium, "for example, some patients use tearing the wool of a sweater or catching a fly; a patient who behaves uncharacteristically for no reason, either by speaking volubly or by being silent; When someone approaches him, he breathes with difficulty or exposes his private parts. We should also consider a person who is clouded by sensory confusion or who uses the senses contrary to normal to be in a state of delirium, as in a patient who loses some kind of consciousness. Abnormal ability or action to behave." 3.It is not difficult to understand that the discourse covers the whole field of madness.Madness, in the classical sense, signifies not so much a particular change of mind or body as that beneath the change of the body, under the eccentricities of speech and manner, there is a kind of delusional discourse.Arguably the simplest and most general definition of classical madness is delire: "The word is derived from lira (to plow), so that deliro actually means to stray from the furrow, from the right track of reason." ’ It is not surprising, therefore, that eighteenth-century pathologists often classified dizziness as a form of madness, and rarely did hysterical convulsions.This is because such language is often not detected in hysterical convulsions, and dizziness provides delusional evidence that the world is indeed "spinning".This delirium is a necessary and sufficient condition for a disease which can be called madness. 4.Language is the first and final structure of madness, its constitutive form.All the evolutions by which madness articulates its nature are based on language.The fact that the essence of madness can ultimately be determined by a certain simple structure of discourse does not reduce madness to a purely psychological state, but makes it encompass the whole of mind and body.This discourse is at once the silent language in which the spirit speaks to itself in its own peculiar truth, and at the same time the tangible expression of the movement of the body.Analogies, supplements, and every direct communication that we see clearly, are suspended between soul and body by this language and its effects in madness.The movement of passion which lasts until it ceases and turns against itself, the sudden emergence of mental imagery and the ensuing turmoil of the body, all this has been impetused already by this language, even when we try to reconstruct it. is also like this.If the determination of the passions is transcended and eliminated in the illusion of the mental image, and if the mentalist in turn sweeps away the whole world of belief and desire, it is because the language of delusions already exists, which frees the passions from all constraints and uses All its compulsive affirmative power to sustain the image of self-indulgence. This delirium is both physical and spiritual, linguistic and imagery, grammatical and physiological.All evolutions of madness end and begin in this delirium.It is this arrogance that organizes these evolutions in their strict sense from the outset.It is madness itself, with its silent transcendence of individual phenomena, that constitutes the truth of madness. The final remaining question is; why is this basic language considered delusional?Even if it is the truth of madness, what makes it true madness and the original form of insanity?Why is it precisely in this discourse - whose form, so far as we see it, conforms to the laws of reason - that we find all the representations which so clearly proclaim the absence of reason? This is a central question, but the classical period did not clearly give a direct answer.We can only examine it indirectly by studying the experiences found in the adjoining realms of this basic language of madness, namely dreaming and delusions. The dreamlikeness of madness was one of the common sayings of the classical period.This statement no doubt stems from a very old tradition. At the end of the sixteenth century, André of Laurent was still arguing for this statement.In his view, melancholia and dreaming have the same root and the same real value. "Natural dreams" reproduce what was felt or known the day before, but was inadvertently processed by the subject's special temperament.Likewise, there is a form of melancholy which arises purely from the patient's physical temperament and which alters in the patient's mind the meaning, value, or tone of actual events.But there is also another kind of melancholia, which can make the patient predict the future, speak a language that no one knows, and see things that ordinary people cannot see.This melancholy originates from some kind of supernatural intervention, which also causes the sleeper to dream about the future and see "incredible things." However, in the seventeenth century, the reason why people kept this tradition of comparing madness and dreaming was only to break it more completely and to create a more fundamental relationship between the two.These new relations include not only an understanding of the ultimate origin and immediate value as symbols of madness and dreams, but also a comparison of their development and nature as phenomena. At this moment, dreaming and madness seem to have the same substance.Their mechanism is the same; thus Zakia can affirm that the same movements that cause dreams in sleepwalking can also cause madness in waking life. When a person just falls asleep, a lot of mist is generated from the body and rises to the head.They are dense and turbulent.They are so vague that they cannot evoke any mental images in the brain.They only stimulate nerves and muscles with their erratic throbbing.The same is true of manic patients.They had few hallucinations or any false beliefs, just intense stimuli they couldn't control.Let us continue with the development of sleep: after the initial disturbance, the fog that rises to the brain is cleared, and its movements become orderly.It was at this time that the strange dream occurred.People saw countless incredible things and miracles.Corresponding to this stage is dementia.People with dementia believe in many things that "don't exist in real life".Eventually, the stimulus of the mist subsides completely, and the sleeper begins to see things more clearly.Through the fog that has since become clear, memories of the previous day emerge, and they fit perfectly with reality.The mental image is misplaced at best.The same is true of melancholics, "especially those who are not completely insane," who also recognize things as they are.The various stages of development of sleep have an influence on the nature of the imagination.There is a fixed resemblance between the progressive processes of sleep and the forms of madness, because the mechanism is the same; there is the same fog and psycho-movement, the same release of mental images, the same in the physical and emotional nature of the phenomena. There is the same correspondence between the psychological or moral values ​​of human beings. "Returning from insanity to normality is like waking up from a dream" An important point in Zakia's analysis is that madness is not associated with the positive phenomena of dreaming, but with the whole of sleep and dreaming, a complex that includes not only mental images (hallucinations, memories, and premonitions) , but also the great emptiness created by sleep, the dullness of the senses, and all the negative states that pull one out of the non-sleep state and its apparent sense of reality.Whereas the tradition of the past compared the delirium of morbidity with active dreams, the classical period held that delirium was completely identical with the complex state of mental imagery and brain obsessions, and it is in this complex state that the senses are obtained. free.This state constitutes madness if it is completely misplaced in the non-sleep state.This is how we should understand the recurring definitions of madness throughout the classical period.做梦这个心象和睡眠的复合状态几乎一直被纳入这种定义；在否定的形式中，非睡眠状态被当作是区分疯人和睡眠者的唯一标准，在肯定的形式中，谚妄被定义为一种梦幻方式，而非睡眠状态则被当作具体的特点：“谚妄是非睡眠者的梦幻”。把做梦视为一种暂时的疯癫的古代观念被颠倒过来了。现在，情况不再是做梦向精神错乱借用其困扰力量，以显示理智是多么脆弱有限，而是疯癫从睡梦获得自己的本性，并通过这种亲密关系揭示它是现实黑夜中的心象的一种解放。 梦是骗人的。它导致混乱。它是虚幻的。但它不是错误。而这就是为什么不能用醒时的梦幻方式来完全概括疯癫，为什么疯癫还包括谬误的原因。诚然，在睡梦中，想橡塑造了“不可思议约事物和奇迹”，或者说它“用一种非理性方式”聚合了栩栩如生的形象。但是，正如fLA亚指出的，"在这些事物中不存在谬误，因此绝无精神错乱。"而疯癫是在与梦境十分相似的心象受到肯定或否定从而构成谬误时发生的。正是在这个意义上，《百科全书》提出了著名的疯癫定义；偏离理性"却又坚定地相信自己在追随着理性--这在我看来就是所谓的发疯了。"在古典主义的精神失常的定义中，谬误是伴随着梦幻的另一个因素。在17和18世纪，疯人并不完全是某种错觉、幻觉或他的思想运转的牺牲品。他不是受到欺骗，而是欺骗自己。如果确实可以说，一方面病人的头脑受到心象的梦幻任意性的引导，另一方面他同时用错误意识的循环论证来束缚自己，那么索瓦热当然可以说："我们把那些实际上丧失了理性或固执某种明显错误的人称为疯人。正是这种在想像、判断和欲望中表现出来的灵魂对错误的执迷不悟，构成了这类人的特征。" 疯癫是从人与真理的关系被搅得模糊不清的地方开始的。正是在这种关系中，同时也正是在这种关系的破坏中，病癫获得了它的一般含义和各种特殊形态。扎奇亚说，痴呆——在此是在最一般的疯癫意义上来使用这个词——“就源出于此，即理智不能区分真伪”。但是，如果我们仅仅把这种破坏理解为否定的话，那么它也有肯定的结构，从而也具有各种独特的形态。接近真理的方式不同，因此也有各种不同的疯癫类型。正是在这种意义上，克里奇顿（Chrichton）列出病癫（精神病）序列；谚妄、幻觉和痴呆。谚妄改变了在感知申形成的与真理的关系（"在精神器官的一般均安中，被歪曲的感知被当作现实来接受"）幻觉则改变了再现功能（"由于精神的谬误，想像的事物被当作了现实，或者现实事物被歪曲地再现出来"）。痴呆并不取消或改变接近真理的能力，而是削弱和缩小这些能力。 但是，我们也可以从真理本身、从真理的形态来分析疯癫。《百科全书》正是用这种方式区分了“自然真理”和“道德真理”。“自然真理存在于我们的感觉与自然对象的准确联系之中。”因此，不能接近这种真理便会造成一种疯癫。这种关于物质世界的疯癫包括错觉、幻觉以及各种感知紊乱。“像某些狂信者听到天使的合唱，便是这种疯癫。”而“道德真理存在于我们能觉察到的道德对象之间或这些对象与我们自身之间的严格关系之中。”丧失这些关系，便会造成一种疯癫。这种疯癫是性格、行为和感情方面的疯癫。“因此，各种精神失常、各种自恋错觉、各种感情，发展到盲目的地步便是名副其实的疯癫。因为盲目是疯癫的突出特征。” 盲目是最接近古典主义疯癫的实质的词之一。它意指的是笼罩着疯癫心象的那种犹如睡眠的昏蒙状态。这种状态赋予被隔绝的心象以无形的支配权。但是它也意抬不可靠的信念，错误的判断，与疯癫密不可分的、由谬误构成的整个背景。这样，谚妄的基本话语凭借着它的各种构成力量揭示了自己在多大程度上不是理性的话语。尽管在形式上十分相似，尽管这种话语的含义十分严格，但是它是在盲目昏蒙中说出来的。它不仅仅是某种梦境的松散而混乱的本文，因为它欺骗自己。但是它也不仅仅是某种错误的陈述，因为它陷入了睡眠时的那种浑然状态。谚妄作为疯癫的基本要素，是用梦的一般语法体系表达的一个假命题系统。 疯癫恰恰处于梦幻和谬误的接触点上。它以各种变形在它们的接触面上纵横移动。这个接触面既将二者结合起来又将二者区分开。疯癫既分担了谬误的非真理性和肯定或否定的任意性，又从梦幻那里借来了源源不断的心象和五彩缤纷的幻觉。但是，因为谬误是纯粹的非真理，而且梦幻既不能肯定也不能判断，所以疯癫就用心象来填补谬误的空白，而且用对假象的肯定来把幻觉联结起来。在某种意义上，正是这种充实将白昼的力量与夜晚的影象结合起来，将清醒头脑的活动与各种幻想结合起来，换言之，把光明的形式和黑暗的内容结合起来。但是，这样一种充实不正是极度的空虚吗？心象的出场提供的不过是被黑夜笼罩的幻觉、铭刻在睡梦角落的影像，因而脱离任何现实感受。无论这些心象是如何栩栩如生，无论它们在肉体中有着如何严密的生理基础，它们不过是虚无，因为它们没有再现任何东西。至于错误的判断，那也仅仅是表面上的判断：当它确认毫不真实的东西时，就等于根本没有确认；它陷入了不存在的错误这一圈套。 疯癫把视觉和盲目、心象和判断、幻觉和语言、睡眠和清醒、白昼和黑夜结合起来，最后成为一种虚无，因为它是将它们中的各种否定因素结合起来。但是这种虚无的悻论在于它要表现自己，透过符号、语言和姿态爆发出来。这真是一种有序和无序、事物的合理存在和疯癫的虚无状态难解难分的结合！因为对疯癫来说，如果它是虚无的话，那么它只能通过背离自身，采用某种理性秩序的外表，从而变成与自己相反的东西，才能表现自己。这就暴露了古典主义疯癫体验的矛盾：疯癫总是不露面，永远退缩到令人无法接近的地方，没有任何现象特征或实证特征；但是它又出现在疯人的独特证据中，而且是完全可见的。虽然疯癫是无意义的混乱，但是当我们考察它时，它所显示的是完全有序的分类，灵魂和肉体的严格机制，遵循某种明显逻辑而表达出来的语言。虽然疯癫本身是对理性的否定，但是它能自行表述出来的一切仅仅是一种理性。简言之，虽然疯癫是无理性，但是对疯癫的理性把握永远是可能的和必要的。 只有一个词能够概括这种体验，即非理性：因为对于理性来说，它的一切既是最贴近的又是最疏远的，既是最空洞的又是最完全的；它的一切都是以熟悉的结构呈现给理性，从而批准了某种力求实证的知识并进而批准了某种力求实证的科学；但是它的一切又不断地避开理性，处于不可接近的领域。 现在，如果我们试图考虑古典主义的非理性在与梦幻和谬误的关系之外就其本身而言有何价值的话，那么我们就不能把它理解为一种理性的扭曲、丧失或错乱，而应简单地将它理解为理性的眩惑。 眩惑是光天化日之下的夜晚，是笼罩着任何光照过于强烈的地方的核心部分的黑暗。眩惑的理性睁眼肴太阳，看到的是虚无，也就等于什么也没看。在眩惑对，对象退缩到黑夜之中，同时也伴随着对视觉本身的压制。当视觉着到对象消失在光亮的神秘黑夜时，也在自身消失的时刻迷失于自身之中。 如果说疯癫是眩惑，也就是说疯人看到日光，看到有理性的人所同样看到的日光（二者都生活于同样的光明之中）。但是，虽然病人看到同样的日光，却仅仅看到目光，在日光中什么也没看见，因此他是看着虚空、看着黑夜、看着虚无。对他来说，阴影是感知日光的途径。这就意味着，由于他看到的是黑夜和黑夜的虚无，因此，他什么也没看到。但是他相信自己看到了什么，他就把自己想像中的幻觉和各种黑夜居民视为现实。这就是为什么暗妄和眩惑的关系构成了疯癫的本质，正像真理和光明的基本关系构成古典主义的理性。 在这个意义上，奋卡地的怀疑原则当然是祛除疯癫的伟大符咒。奋卡儿闭上眼睛、堵住耳朵，是为了更好地看到本质性日光的真正光亮。这样他就避免了疯人的眩惑。而疯人睁大着眼睛，看到的只是黑夜，虽然什么也没看见，却自以为看到了想像的东西。由于笛卡地的闭合的感觉具有不变的洞察力，他就打破了一切可能的迷惑。如果他在看什么，他就能确信他所看到的东西。而在被某种其实是黑暗的光亮所陶醉的疯人眼前，浮现和繁衍的是各种心象，这些心象没有自我批判能力（因为病人看见它们），却又无可补救地脱离现实存在（因为疯人什么也没看见） 非理性与理性的关系正如眩惑与日光本身的关系一样。这并不是一个比喻。我们现在正接触到滋润着全部古典主义文化的大宇宙观的核心。文艺复兴时期的“宇宙”有着十分丰富的内在联系和象征意蕴，完全受星辰互动现象支配。这种“宇宙”现在消失了。但是“自然”还未取得普遍性的地位，也没有获得人类抒情式的承认，并迫使人服从它的季节的律。古典主义思想家在这个“世界”中所保留的和在“自然”中所预置的是一种极其抽象的法则，而这种法则却构成了十分生动具体的对立，即白昼与黑夜的对立。这种时间不再是星相的宿命时间，也还不是抒情式的季节时间。它是普遍的时间，但又是将光明与黑暗截然分开的时间。这种观念完全统治了一种数学科学——笛卡地的物理学其实是一种光的数学。但是，这种观念同时也勾画出人类生存中的重大悲剧性停顿：它以同样的专横支配着拉辛的戏剧时间和图尔的空间。白昼和黑夜的循环是古典主义世界的法则。它是这个世界最简约而最有强制力的要素，是自然中最必然的也是最简单的规律。 这个法则排斥一切辩证关系和妥协，因此它既确立了知识的完壁无暇的统一，又肯定了人类悲剧生存中不可协调的分裂。它统治着一个没有晨爆暮毒的世界。这个世界没有热烈的喷发，也没有似水的柔情。一切事物要么是清醒的，要么是梦幻的，不是真理就是蒙蔽，不是光明的存在就是黑暗的虚无。这种法则规定了一种必然的泾渭分明的秩序，从而使真理得以存在并一成不变。 但是，在这个秩序的两个方面都有两种相反而对称的形象。它们表明，在某些极端的情况下这个秩序可能被侵犯，同时还表明，不使这个秩序受到侵犯是何等重要。一方面是悲剧。把戏剧情节限定在一天之内的规则具有一种肯定性内涵；它迫使悲剧的时段必须在这种独一无二的但又永恒普遍的白昼与黑夜的交替中保持平衡；整个悲剧必须在这种时间统一体中完成，因为说到底，悲剧完全是两个由时间联系起来的领域的不可调和的对抗。在拉辛的戏剧中，“每一个白昼都面临着一个黑夜，可以说白昼使黑夜得到揭示，如特洛伊的大屠杀之夜，尼禄（Nero）的欲望之夜，提图斯（Titus）的罗马之夜，亚他利雅（Athalie）的黑夜。这些都是漫漫长夜，黑暗王国。它们毫不放松地骚扰着白昼，使之不得片刻安宁。它们只有在新的死亡之夜才会消失。反之，这些怪异之夜又被某种光亮所骚扰，这种光亮是一种可怕的白昼折映，如特洛伊的焚毁、罗马禁卫军的火炬，梦中昏暗不明的光亮。在古典主义悲剧中，白昼和黑夜犹如一对镜子，无始无终地相互映照，并为这种简单的结合提供了一种出人意料的深速意蕴，后者用单了的运动笼罩了人的全部生死。在图尔的《镜子中的玛德莱娜》中，光亮和阴影以同样方式相互掩映，使面孔和它的镜像、骷髅和它的幻象、警醒和沉默既分立对峙又统一结合。在《圣阿列克西像》中，侍童举着火炬，映照出相倍的阴影所笼罩的主人。这是用一个肃穆而色调明亮的男孩来比照人类的全部苦难，用一个孩子来揭示死亡。 在另一方面，面对悲剧及其神圣语言的是疯癫的混乱不清的喃喃低语。在这里，庄重的对立法则也受到冒犯。如同悲剧中的混乱一样，阴影和光亮混合在疯癫的狂暴之中。但这表现为另一种方式。在黑夜，悲剧人物发现了一种阴沉的白昼真理。特洛伊之夜成为安德洛玛克（Andromache）的真理，正如亚他利雅的那一夜预示了即将来临的白昼的真理。黑夜反而具有了揭示作用。它成为现实存在的最深刻的白昼。反之，疯人在光天化日之下发现的仅仅是不协调的夜间形象；他听任光亮被各种梦幻所遮蔽；他的白昼不过是最浮浅的现象之夜。正是在这种意义上，悲剧人物比其他人更介入现实存在，更是真理的持有者，因为他就像菲德拉一样当着无情的太阳喊出黑夜的全部秘密。而疯人则完全脱离现实存在。既然他用白昼的幻觉反映出黑夜的非存在物，那么他怎么可能不被排斥在现实存在之外呢？ 我们知道，悲剧主人公与前一阶段的巴罗克人物不同，他绝不可能是疯子，反之，疯癫也不可能负载着我们自尼采和阿尔托以来所了解的那些悲剧价值。在古典时期，悲剧中的人和疯癫的人相互对峙，绝无对话的可能，绝无共同语言。因为前者只能说出有关存在的关键词语，在一刹那间把真理的光明和深沉的黑暗统一起来。而后者则无休止地发出中性的低语，既没有白昼的高谈阔论，也没有晦暗的谎言。 疯癫标示出的黑夜幻觉的虚浮和白昼判断的不存在之间的分界。 虽然我们已经能够从知识考古学中逐步了解这一点，但是，一个简单的悲剧闪电，郎《安德洛玛克》（拉辛的悲剧，于1667年首演。--译者注）中的最后一部分台词，就已经告诉了我们许多。 当疯癫正从悲剧表演中消失之时，当悲剧人物正要在今后两个多世纪中与非理性的人分道扬镖之时，正是在这个时刻仿佛必须有一个疯癫的最后造型。《安德洛玛克》最后一场大幕降落也正落在疯癫的重要悲剧化身的最后一人身上。但是，在它即将消失之时的出场中，在这种将永久禁锢自身的疯癫中，表达了它此时及在整个古典时期的意义。即将消失之时不正是它能最充分地呈现自己的真理、自己缺席的真理、处于黑夜边缘的白昼的真理的时刻吗？这只能是第一部伟大古典主义悲剧的最后一幕，或者说，这是在最后一部前古典主义戏剧中第一次用悲剧情节表达出古典主义的疯癫真理。但是无论如何，这个真理是转瞬即逝的，因为它的出现只能是它的消失；这一闪电只能在已经临近的夜空中看到。 奥瑞斯忒斯在疯狂中度过了三重黑夜，即经历了围绕一个中心的三次眩感。在此之前，白昼刚刚降！临到．皮洛斯（Pyrrhus）的宫殿，黑夜尚未离去，给曙光激镶上阴影的黑边，明确地标出白昼的界限。就在这个喜庆的早晨，罪恶发生了，皮洛斯在黎明之时闭上了眼睛：一块阴影投射在祭坛的阶梯上、投射在光明和黑暗的交界。疯癫的两大宇宙主题就是这样以不同的方式呈现出来，成为奥瑞斯忒斯的疯狂的前兆、背景和衬托。疯癫在这个时候才开始了：在对皮洛斯的谋杀和赫耳弥饿汉（Hermion。）的背叛真相大白之时，在一切最终突然暴露出一个既古老又新鲜的真理的那个黎明，出现了第一重阴影：奥瑞斯忒斯周围的世界开始退缩到这片阴夜之中；真理出现在这个若明若暗的晨爆中、这个黎明时分的夜色中，此时严酷的真理将变成脱级的幻觉： 但是，多么浓重的夜色竟突然笼罩了我？这是谬误的虚空之夜；但是在这第一片朦胧的背景前将出现一片华彩，一种虚假的光亮。那是心象的虚假光亮。梦鹿产生了，但不是在曙光的照耀下，而是在一种昏暗的闪光中，即在风暴和谋杀的光亮下。 嗅，神呀！有何等血河在我身边流淌！于是梦幻王国便出现了。在这种夜色中，幻觉获得了自由。复仇女神出现了并开始行使权力。她们虽飘曳不定却来势汹汹。她们在人的孤独心境中相继出现并轻而易举地取得胜利。投有什么能够抗拒她们。心象和语言在呼语中交错，这些呼语就是符咒，就是既被确认又被拒斥、既是被召唤来的又让人恐惧的精灵。但是，所有这些心象都向第二个黑夜汇聚。这个黑夜是惩罚的黑夜，永恒复仇的黑夜，死亡中的死亡之夜。复仇女神被重新召回到属于她们自己的黑暗之中，那里是她们的诞生地，她们的真实情况，也就是她们e身的虚无状态。 你是把我拉入那永恒的黑夜中吗？ 正是在这个时候才显示出疯癫时的心象只是梦幻和谬误。如果受折磨者被它们所蒙蔽而求助于它们，那么就会在它们的必然破灭中与它们同归于尽。 此时，我们度过了第二重黑夜。但是我们并未因此而返回到世界的白昼现实。我们超越了疯癫的现象，接触到了指妄，即自始便暗中维系着疯癫的那种根本性的结构。这个指委有一个名字，耶赫耳弥俄涅。赫耳弥俄涅不再作为幻觉中的佳丽，而是作为疯癫的终极真相而重新出现。意味深长的是，赫耳弥俄涅正是在狂乱之时出面干预了：她既不是成为复仇女神中的一员，也不是在她们前面引导她们，而是在她们之后，与她们有一个黑夜之隔——她们把奥瑞斯忒斯拖入了那个黑夜，她们自己现在也消散在那个黑夜之中。赫耳弥俄涅是作为谚妄的形象、作为自始便暗中支配着一切的真理而出面干预的。复仇女神根本上只是她的仆人。在此，我们看到的恰与希腊悲剧相反。在希腊悲剧中，复仇女神就是在黑夜中一直等待着剧中人物的最终命运和真理，剧中人物的激情不过是她们的工具。而在这里，复仇女神仅仅是谚妄的侍女，谚妄则是最初的和最终的真理，它早已在激情中出现，而现在则赤膊上阵。这个真理把心象赶开，独自支配一切： 但是，滚开吧，让赫耳弥俄涅自行其事吧。 赫耳弥俄涅自始至终一直在场。她一直在折磨奥瑞斯忒斯，一点点地摧毁他的理智。为了赫耳弥俄涅，奥瑞斯忒斯变成“叛逆者、杀人犯和读神者”。赫耳弥俄涅最终表明自己是奥瑞斯忒斯疯癫的真理和顶峰。而谚妄达到僵直的程度时再也说不出别的，仅仅把一个早已陈腐可笑的真理当作紧迫的决断宣布出来： 我最终把我的心送给她吃。 很久以前奥瑞斯忒斯就已经奉献了这种野蛮的牺牲。但是现在他把他的疯癫的这种基本要素当作一种结局表达出来。因为疯癫不可能走得更远了。在通过其本质性的谚妄说出了自身的真理之后，它只能是在第三个黑夜中崩溃了。这是无人能从中返回的黑夜，是一个不断吞噬的黑夜。只有在语言归于沉寂、谚妄本身受到阻遏、人心最终被吞噬的那一瞬间，非理性才会出现。 在17世纪初的悲剧中疯癫也产生戏剧效果，但它是通过揭示真理（真相）来产生戏剧效果；疯癫依然通向语言，通向一种更新后的阐释语言和关于被重新征服了的现实的语言。它至多只能是悲剧的倒数第二个时刻，而不能成为《安德洛玛克》中那样的最后时刻。而在后者那种最后时刻，没有揭示其它任何真理，只能通过谚妄揭示激情的真理，因为激情在与疯癫结合时达到了登峰造极的程度。 古典主义学术所追循和探索的非理性运动已经用简洁的悲剧语言走完了自己的全部轨迹。以后，沉默便能成为主宰了，在总是退缩的非理性中，疯癫消失了。 我们现在对非理性的认识使我们进一步理解了禁闭的意义。 这种将疯癫放逐到一个中性的和划一的隔离世界的行为，既不标志着医学技术演变的停顿，也不标志着人道主义观念进步的停顿。它用下列事实来表明自己的准确意义：古典时期的疯癫不再是另一个世界的符号，它已成为非存在物的荒谬表现。说到底，禁闭的目的在于压制疯癫，从社会秩序中清除一种找不到自己位置的形象。禁闭的实质不是拔除一种危险。禁闭仅仅表明了疯癫在实质上是什么：是一种非存在物的表现；禁闭通过提供这种表现来压制疯癫，因为它使疯癫恢复了座无真相。禁闭是对付被视为非理性即对理性的空洞否定的疯癫的最恰当的做法；通过禁闭，疯癫被公认为虚无。也就是说，一方面，疯癫在人们的直觉中是异常（差异）：因此，不是医生而是神智正常的人们的自发的集体判断要求做出禁闭一个病人的决定；另一方面，禁闭只能有一个目的——矫正（即压制异常或用死亡来完成这种虚无状态）；因此，在禁闭所的登记簿上常常可以看到护理员记录下的那些选择死亡的人，但这并不表明禁闭的野蛮、不人道或邪恶，而是严格地表达了其意义：它是一个消灭虚无状态的手术。禁闭虽然是一种表面现象而且被包上一套临时拼凑的道德，但却勾画出疯癫的秘密而别致的结构。 那么，禁闭其的是出自于这种深切的直觉吗？疯癫最终被打上非存在的耻辱烙印，难道不是由于禁闭的作用而使疯癫实际上从古典主义视野中消失了吗？这些问题的答案是一个连环套。毫无疑问，陷于这种无结果的循环质询将一无所获。因此，最好是让古典主义文化从一般结构上来概括自己对疯癫的体验。这种体验以同样的含义出现在古典主义文化内在逻辑的统一秩序中、思辨的秩序和制度的秩序中，出现在话语和法令中、言词和暗语中——实际上，无论在什么地方，凡是表意因素对于我们都能具有一种语言的价值。