Chapter 10 Chapter 7 "One mouth, and I can understand you"

It doesn’t matter how much wealth you inherit, how secure your job is, how you live, how you look, it doesn’t matter the shape and size of your driveway, the layout of your living room and front porch, the sweetness of your drink. It doesn’t matter what time you eat dinner, what you mail-order, where your school is, how much awe you have for it, and what books and newspapers you read—as long as you speak, your social status will be determined. It's exposed. "A man's speech is always the billboard of his family background and social status," John Brooks said, paraphrasing Ben Jonson's discovery three centuries ago in relation to modern American life.Ben Jonson said: "Language can best express a person. I can understand you with just one mouth." The large middle class known to Ben Jonson, fearful of offending others with their language, is fascinated by expressions that subtly reveal class status, such as euphemisms, polite words, and pseudo-swear words, such as " Golly!" (God) But we should first realize that it is quite difficult to discuss the hierarchical meaning of language accurately.It is especially easy to make mistakes when talking about the hierarchy and traditions of other countries instead of our own.The Englishman H. B. Rooks-Baker, in his recent American section on upper and lower terms for Richard Barker's Revisiting the Above and the Not Above (1978), misunderstood American grade term.Mastering the profession takes years, and maintaining accurate hearing on both sides of the Atlantic is no easy feat, the latter being agreed upon.Thus, the twenty-six expressions that Brooks-Baker so-called upper-class Americans avoid appear to be full of errors.

For example, he tells us that non-top people say "affair" (activities), not "party" (party).But any American of any class understands that the two terms are totally different and don't mean the same thing at all. "af-fair" refers to a commercial meal, such as a dull dinner party or reception.If you're going to have a good time, you don't go to an "affair" but to a "party" unless you're going to a "1ove affair".Brooks-Baker also tells readers that it is the poor who call money "folding stuff" (origami).No, it's an outdated slang term.People today often say "mazuma" and "green back" (green back).Baker also believes that the poor in the United States refer to the "tuxedo" (swallowed coat) worn by the upper class as "tux" (dress), and he is wrong again. The upper class will think that these two terms are low-level terms. " (dinner service) or even "black tie" (black tie).This is the term used by people of higher ranks.Even when it comes to the vehicle that gets our hero home from a "tuxedo event" (i.e., a black-tie party), Baker errs.Baker insists that the poorer classes would call the car a "limo," while the upper class would call it a "limousine."All wrong.In fact, the prolets say "big black flash Caddy" (sometimes "caddy"), the middle class say "limousine" and only those who rent cabs for funerals or bar parties Will call it "limo" behind his back.So what exactly do upper-class people call this means of transport?They say car (car), for example, they just say: "Parker, we need the car around eleven o'clock".

Brooks-Baker's omission is an effective reminder of the risks involved in correctly interpreting language's hierarchical cues.The lapses in Tocqueville's prophecy also serve as a warning against this overconfident attitude.Tocqueville overestimated the power of the word "democracy" to eliminate class distinctions, and he speculated that this new form of political organization would be extremely effective in eradicating social class differences in language and style of writing.When he looked around the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, he found that his ears were full of stereotyped words, so he conceived a class line where it should be stopped: "Between expressions that seem inherently vulgar and expressions that appear to be educated, nothing should be done." Distinction." He concluded that "there is as much confusion in language as there is in society." Yet the changes taking place on the continent proved that his understanding of both language and democratic society had gone awry.The truth is, precisely because this is a democracy, class distinctions are more alive than anywhere else.And language, instead of merging into a community without social distinctions, unexpectedly breeds more symbols of social hierarchy.In fact, there is nothing unreasonable about language and society, because every ordinary person here is aware of it.They would point out to surveying sociologists that language is the most effective tool for judging a stranger's social status.Someone swears: "It's true. When a man opens his mouth, you know what he's about."

Since the hierarchy here is more elusive than in Britain, the meaning of the language is compared to the "upper" and "non-upper" divisions Nancy Mitford made in her flattering 1955 essay "The British Nobility" , really wants more.More subtle, simple categorical distinctions in two are simply not enough to describe the reality of these allegations.Therefore, once we want to discuss the hierarchical meaning of language in American society, the first thing we need to pay attention to is some absolute signs of class distinctions. One of the most important phenomena is probably the use of double negatives. This expression makes the poor class and the middle class The upper classes are distinguished.For example, "i cant get no satisfaction" (meaning "I am not satisfied". The correct expression is: i cant get satisfaction or i can get no satisfaction. A translator's note).You wouldn't hear this sort of thing in the boardrooms and management boardrooms of major corporations, or among VIPs at lavish dinners, or on board a sixty-five-foot brig off the coast of Nantucket. expressed in language.Instead, in temporary work sheds, auto repair shops.You'll hear a lot of this in workers' bars.This is followed by special grammar and the use of personal auxiliary verbs, such as "Hedon't" and "i wants it". (The correct translations are: "He doesn't" and "i want it". A translator's note) This is not just a "slip of the tongue" or "grammatical error", this kind of statement connects the speaker with another English speaker. People are differentiated by social class.These two kinds of people may show respect to each other, but they will never become friends.They belonged to different classes, and even if they were going to get along, they would definitely see each other as eccentric and interesting animals.And not quite like the same kind.

Grammar draws a line between middle class and lower class, and pronunciation and vocabulary choices separate upper class from middle class.While everyone can have a personal set of rating markers, I've found the following language differences to be the most reliable.Words used to express (or display) one's "cultural experience" are especially dangerous for the middle class, such as crepes (French pancakes. A translator's note), the middle class is often pronounced "craypes".Mistakes of this kind are also common in many of the words in which people flaunt their knowledge of exotic places.Take the French word for "fiance" (although the middle class prefers "boyfriend"), and they often stress the last syllable into the ridiculous fee-on-say.The same goes for the "driver" (driver), often called by the upper class, which has become a show-fur in the middle class.Some would argue that the h in Amherst (Amherst) is especially subtly indicative of middle-class status, others would not. The word "diamond" is pronounced with only two syllables for the upper class, but three syllables for the middle class.In a similar situation, the word "beautiful" (beau-tiful) has three syllables in the upper class, but it becomes four monosyllable words in the middle class, bee-you-tee-full.The middle classes especially like to accent the second syllable of some "big" words, such as "exqu-isite" (exquisite and elegant), "despicab1e" (despicable), "la-mentable" (attentive) ), "hospitab1e" (hospitable) and so on.And those who are eager to project their unquestionable rank tend to accentuate the first syllable, and of course, in passing, call attention to their Britishness and thus pay homage.

The more the middle class becomes entangled with artistic experience, the greater the risk.For example, they love the word "patna" (patina green. The author refers here to the color of classical artwork. A translator's note), but always forget to stress the first syllable.Prominent names derived from cultural history are also off limits, especially names in British tradition, such as Henry Purcell.Edwin Meath III, a former adviser to President Reagan, inadvertently exposed his suspicious family background in a television interview.He chose the word "salutary" to show his good breeding, rather than "wholesome" or "healthy"; but his pronunciation tells people that he The word "salutory" comes to mind.This is typical middle-class practice, choosing those "big words" and making ridiculous mistakes. The word "enormity" usually reveals the true identity of the less fortunate in the social hierarchy, and they like to use it to emphasize the concept of "big" (mistakenly used as a noun for "enormous", a Translator's Note), for example, "The whale was of such an anenormity..." (the original text was "The whale was of such anenormity...", meaning became "so vicious". A Translator's Note), the pool could hardly contain it ’” (The proletarians would say, “That whale is so big, they couldn’t fit in the pool.”) Elegance, the fatal lure of the middle class, which looks to separate itself from the arrogance and ignorance of the upper and the poor. Straightforward rudeness is distinguished.

In the middle class, you will hear the word "prestigious" (prestige) a lot, so you can't help but guess why it has gradually replaced "distinguished" (outstanding), "noted" (well-known) in the past two decades. Could the words "respecte" or "respecte" have anything to do with a national survey of souls, Wright-Mills Jr. found that the word "Pres-tige" (prestige) was actually Contains derogatory connotations."Etymologically, it means to dazzle the eye with a juggling trick," he said, adding that in France, the word prestige always evokes emotional associations that are associated with deceit and deceit. The art of deception is, or at least has something to do with ingenuity.The same is true in Italy and Germany.Only in the United States is the word associated with prestige.In retrospect, I also unconsciously resorted heavily to the connotation of the word "prestige" when speaking of institutions of higher learning.

Some of these hierarchical distinctions are straightforward, while others are subtle and subtle.The upper and middle classes have a special vocabulary for describing dull or unpleasant social situations.They say "tilesome" (tiring) or "tedious" (lengthy), while those below them say "boring" (boring).When they say "upset," "distn3ssed," or even "cross," the underclass say "angry," "mad," or even "ssre." upset).In addition, the upper class also has a set of special terms when expressing approval.No one in the proles would say a thing "super" (outstanding, British) or "outstanding" (outstanding, prep-school slang), because it's like a proles woman in the mall saying " divine" (really attractive). "darling" (so charming) or "adorable" (how cute), sounds contrived and jarring.The non-upper statement is "nice" (very good).

Yet it was the middle-class pursuit of elegance and superiority that had the most interesting effects.We have seen that the use of foreign words in particular shows the weakness of this class.People in this class can say "graffiti" (graffiti, originally referring to the rough depiction on the walls of ancient Rome, now refers to the words scribbled on the wall. A translator's note), and believe in "chiluvinism" (chauvinism) and sexual assault related.Plural nouns with a "quasi-hierarchical sense" are also often prone to misuse, for example, middle-class people will be "quite learned" He said aphenomena (a phenomenon), a criteria (a standard), a stiata (a class) and amedia (a media, possibly referring to a newspaper), but in fact these words are plural.They also say that a well-known author is a literati, a word that means "literary world" and is a plural collective noun.The middle class also thought the word "context" was a more dignified form of "content" and would say "I don't like the 'context' of this book, it's all bloody stuff ’” and when a coast official reported a severe oil spill in San Francisco Bay.He imagined that the word "cross" (passing through) would be too vulgar for this occasion, so he used "several boats 'transit-ed' (running over) the sea." After a series of unreasonable expressions, a middle-class People of class began to doubt whether they had exposed their old background again, so they would add a plural suffix indicating a hierarchical meaning to a common word, such as "pnxcess" (process), so that the word was pronounced as process-ess , with a view to re-flaunting their worth.All such performances of the middle class aptly explain Lord Melbourn's conclusion, when he found: "There is always something good and lovely about the upper classes and the lower classes, but the middle class is all affectation. Far-fetched. False. Pretentious. "

All classes, except sometimes the upper and middle classes, are greatly downgraded by their tendency to use the word "home" instead of "house," and the middle classes seem especially fond of saying, "They live in a nice house." in a half-million-dollar home”; or, after the earthquake, “he found his home shaking quite violently.” I think we can trace when the word “house” began to fall out of favor with the middle class.First, the word "home" is a term used by real estate dealers to promote sales, to make prospective customers imagine that they are paying for more than just a pile of bricks and tiles.Plastic veneer and wainscoting, but a warmth.Cozy love nest.Since then, customers have embraced the word "home" with gusto and enthusiasm for the following reasons: First, the middle class loves to use advertising clichés; Take comfort in the fantasy that you can buy love, comfort, warmth, etc. with money, at least in multiple ways; In their hypocritical minds, the word "house" suggests some vague connection.People call nursing homes "rest home"; but when calling "brothel", the word "house" is always inseparable, such as bawdy house, whore house or sporting house.No one ever heard that "home" had a bad name.But there are exceptions, for example, how to explain "cat home" (cat home, refers to brothel, a translator's note)?It is a pity that "house" was eliminated in this way.In the same way, the word Madam (Madam, also means the mother of a brothel. A translator's note) has never been popular among the middle class in the United States.Oddly, people who use "home" to describe home also indulge some exceptions.They never say hach ​​home (seaside residence), but beach house (seaside hut).

With all the machinations of today's real estate business, "home," or whatever it seems, does often signify something quite concrete, such as the tiny, bumbling buildings that real estate developers cut corners on land they've snatched. .These "homes" are generally located in some unfortunate corner of the countryside, where there is neither history nor culture to boast about.In Maine, New Hampshire, or Vermont, one doesn't say "a two-hundred-year-old. 'farmhouse home' with white siding."Only the middle class lived in "home".If economic conditions deteriorate, they sell their "home" and move into a "mobile home" (formerly called a mobile home with a trailer), or a motor home (motor home). The advertising slogan that the middle class loves is not limited to "home". "Please come to the living forum!" You might hear it said when a company worker's wife invites you into the living room.Also, "I think I forgot your coat in the 'reception gallery'." She actually meant the vestibule.Or, "Would you like to go straight upstairs to your 's1eeping chamber('bedroom) now?" , the middle class would instinctively adopt the advertiser's compound word with the suffix -wear (…to wear), unashamedly calling all the clothing in the house "wears": footwear nighewear or sleepwear leisure stornwear heachwear swimwear citywear campuswear eyewear (i.e. spectacles, glasses) neckwear ……etc. Also, compound words from the word -ware (…utility) make them feel good: tableware dinnerware stemware barware flatware htchenware, and glassWare Or, when they are in a good mood, they call glassware "cryS-tal" (crystal ware), while those they imitate - the upper class - simply say "g1asses" (glasses).As victims of advertising, the middle class also likes to use the word "designer" (designer) a lot, used to mean something is "beautiful" or "precious".So, once a tissue with an expensive pattern is called a "designer tissue," it no longer looks silly and ugly.The polyester baths used by the middle class, the kind with the shimmery threads, are often called "designer baths". As the middle class seeks rhetorical sham refinement, advertising language often satisfies its psyche with little effort.And because they want to climb upward, they also imagine that the elegance and beauty of language must speed up this process.So we will hear enormity, salutory, duplicity (dual nature), and of course gourmet (gourmet). "There's still a certain nicety to the theater," says an actor in a TV interview, actually referring to delicacv, while at the same time revealing that he's a middle-class guy, Coveting higher status.The advert used in a recent flyer (for a new magazine targeting a Northeastern suburban neighborhood) is a good example of middle-class phoniness.That town, once very hierarchical, has been ruthlessly taken over by people who respond enthusiastically to rhetoric like this: This extraordinary area represents a way of life.It's a style of life, a life of good quality... crystal clear glassware at special dinners... fine dining in restaurants... a good book to read... this is life at its best... serene opulence ...unconventional...beauty and elegance...Magazine will get you and a group away from it all.People who aim high share their dreams together.Brilliant and accomplished... The magazine's readers are men of wit and perceptiveness.woman and child. - "Magazine" is you! " The incomparable fusion of unstable mentality and snobbish psychology has forged a delicate balance, which can make the confidence and courage of the middle class invincible. Rustic elegance is also a common rhetorical feature of airlines and airports, and 90% of the people who patronize here are middle class.If you can't get a sense of the place's hopelessly middle-class roots in the airport's idiosyncratic understanding of the concepts of "comfort, convenience, and pomp," you can somehow sense something in their rhyming language.For example, they are always out of the blue claiming to be "international", or even, like Houston Airport, "intercontinental", even for the most trivial reason-a plane takes off and lands in Alpurco, Mexico or Alberta, Canada.You don't really feel any sign of internationality on these flights, such as using foreign currency or speaking a foreign language, or feeling "international" in any way. As for all kinds of spoken or written language used on the plane, almost without exception, they meet the strong needs of the middle class, and the words must be bluff.Such expressions certainly range from motion discomfort (speed discomfort), flotiltion device (flotation device) to teverages (drinks) and nondairy creamer (non-dairy coffee milk companion).On a flight from New York to London recently, I heard the flight attendant claim: "You are not allowed to smoke in the bathroom" rather than simply "Please don't smoke in the bathroom" - middle class An excellent example of class hypocrisy is simply the definition of this trait.Menus on transatlantic flights that ostensibly list "dietary ingredients" are actually peddling duty-free items, including "designer" ties and scarves.These small cards are simply a living showroom for fake elegance.I once flew on TWA (Worldwide) airlines and found that the menu there had inadvertently listed drinks as "drinks" (alcoholic beverages), which is of course a completely upper-class usage, but generally should not be used. No omissions, especially when describing the dishes (my tone is already a little exaggerated): "Dijon pan-fried tenderloin, rare sirloin with light cream mustard Butter sauce, green peas, and wine from Pormis Vineyards." Another dish is called "Cauliflower with Creamy Bread." What's more, "Based on the choice of most previous passengers, if your main course Please accept our sincere apologies." In fact, it is enough to say "certain dishes are not available" and "no smoking in the bathroom..." as an educated person usually says. But the word "toilet" is not the middle-class usage, preferring "avaiories" or "restrooms," which are more euphemistic and certainly mark their refinement. The middle class also prize their own repertoire of swear words in euphemistic ways.If you hear exclamations like: "Holy Cow!" or "Holy Moses!" (in place of the usual "Holy shit" or "Jesrs Christ" [fucking]), or To hear someone say "someone has completed a whale of a job" is undoubtedly a middle-class speaker.It's hard to believe: after all the torments and scandals of the mid-twentieth century, it's no longer possible to see the man who once used 0Pshaw!Or Botheration to mean o hell! (Hell) Even Shit! (Bullshit) No trace left of class anymore. — but we find out that, after escaping the clutches of his cruel and wicked Italian captors, U.S. Army Brigadier General Dozier said goodbye to weeks of enslavement and humiliation: "Doggone good ).” The middle class insisted on replacing the term pregr1ant with ex-pecting or siarting a family.On the other hand, the poor will say beingin family way to pregnancy. Furthermore, as if out of an unwritten law, we all now use the word "make love" in place of sex.Still, the upper class stood firm.According to Jillie Cooper, "I once heard my son say, when he was entertaining his friends, 'Mummy said pardon (sorry) is a much worse word than fuck'." In the middle class, you will hear that dentures are called denture (toothware), rich people are called wealthy (rich people), and death is called passing away (going), or pass over, (the poor class may say someone is takento Jesus[go to see God]).Others such as, alcoholic is called Peopie with alcohol problems (people with alcohol problems), fools are slow learners (people who learn slowly), or called underachievers (people who perform below the level of intelligence), crazy is mental illness ( Mental illness), drug use is drug abuse (drug abuse), lameness is handicapped (with a physical disability), and sometimes, most euphemistically, the chalienged (with physical difficulties to overcome).A slum is an inner city, a cemetery is a cemetery or a memorial park, these are the special words for those who are susceptible to advertising.As for those sociologists who are accustomed to calling the poorer classes the supporting classes, you can safely judge that they are firmly middle class. A few years ago, someone finally figured out that the word "sour" (sour) in Chinese restaurant "sweet and sour pork" elicits some unpleasant associations in the brains of middle-class customers.So the standard "Chinese" restaurant corrected itself and replaced it with a safer term: pungent (strong).The stable upper echelons still say—in fact, insist on saying—"sweet and sour", and use these two methods to show that they have noticed the disgraceful cover-up just now, but they insist: strongly oppose this kind of behavior, as for the middle class Class, he ordered] will be attracted by the euphemisms that float to the ear at any time.Especially when someone is selling something, a "sweet and strong" can win his favor. The middle class's penchant for navigating through euphemisms isn't just because it helps to hide the truth, it's also a penchant for luxury.Most euphemisms help to satisfy this desire, since using it 〔〕 increases the number of syllables, and the middle class often confuses quantity, weight, and value.Jonathan Swift once imagined syllables as having weight, density.Take pleasure in physical entities with specific gravity and other purely material properties.The contemporary middle class seems to be busy living up to Swift's notion, but stripping his irony clean.Therefore, they will not say now (now), but very forcefully say as of this time (when this time).They don't say later (later), but subsequently (following), it's like their trick to get dressed up and go shopping.In his invaluable Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Vague Terms (1981), Hugh Rosen established the most important principles: The longer the euphemism, the better.The principle is... euphemisms should be longer than the words they replace.They should have more letters, more syllables, and usually two or more words where one word is used.This is partly because Anglo-Saxon taboo and swearwords are generally short; but also because multiple words help to circumvent a point, rather than bluntly stating it.Rosen then put together an aptly pseudosocial-scientific "Index of Obscurity or Pretense" designed to quantify the relationship between euphemisms and pronouns.The higher the index value, the more the number of syllables, and the higher the success rate of euphemism modification.The details of Rosen's arithmetic are of course irrelevant to us.We only need to note that in the "FOp Index" (FOp Index), the index that equates the word prostitute (prostitute) with the word whore (prostitute) is 2.4, and the index that equates to the word harlot (prostitute) is 1.4.In Rosen's "Foop Index", the highest value comes from a former cabinet member who called his "cook": "Secretary's personal assistant-special Activities". In the "Fupu" Wanyu series, this index is as high as 17.8, which is estimated to be close to the permanent unbeaten record. The typical member of the middle class fears being judged as socially insignificant, and thus, like a wise philosopher or "manager," plans for fame as ambitiously as a wise man.Therefore, it is almost impossible for him to resist the temptation to frequently use polysyllabic words, so he is inexplicably tactful.Indeed, it is sometimes difficult to know whether the urge to euphemism leads him to polysyllables, or whether he employs this figure of speech out of a yearning for the effect that euphemism can impart weight and luster to words.This problem often occurs: someone will say that he works in the scrap industry, or even the recycling or recycling industry, but he will not say that he is a garbage worker.He might even say he's in "trash business".Euphemisms describing occupations in particular seem to require multiple syllables.In many universities, what used to be called a bursar (man in charge of finances) is now called a disburement officer (fiscal expenditure officer), just as an undertaker (some may think that's a euphemistic enough word) is now called a disbursement officer. As fyneral director (funeral director), there are two more syllables.Further, if 'bereavement guide' could become ''grief therapiat'', then 'professional class' and quasi-medical veneer would make up for the syllable loss. 'selling' was elevated to '' "Retailing" or "marketing" (marketing), or the more advanced "merchandising" - the syllables are exactly quadrupled. By analogy, when "sales manager" (sales manager) changes suddenly As Vice-President, Merchandising, the syllables were tripled. The person who provided the "information" on the phone now provides the "Inquiry Service" (Dirwtoty Assistance), which gained a syllable increase Double the brilliance. Some sociologists who examine the occupational hierarchy have found that "druggist" (druggist) ranks sixth among fifteen occupations. But just add one syllable, that is, change the title to "pharmacist" ( pharmacist), this profession quickly rose to the fourth position. The middle class creates the polysyllables required in euphemism while watering down hard facts or embellishing reality.It's all about avoiding any "gloomy" elements, but at the same time focusing on the brilliance of the words.Thus "prison" becomes "correctional faci-lity," "strike" becomes "work stoppage" or "industrial action," Pain becomes discomfort, murder becomes homicide, suicide becomes self-deliveance, death "(death) is "fatality".Also, "slum clearance" with only three syllables becomes "urban renewal" with five syllables. The term "nuclear device" replaced the term "atom bomb".The reason for this is not only because the tone has eased a lot, but the two extra syllables are also an important factor.With no generosity in their bones, like Ronald Reagan, the middle class has always abhorred tipping, seeing it as rip-off.But when you call a "tip" a "gratuity," the word is much less jarring. The occasions where polysyllables can be used to improve middle-class status (in their view) are too numerous to list.Here we can list a few examples.The following words in the left column are considered to be louder and more elegant than those on the right: cocktail drinks group people Position Work Even though (albeit) despite roadway road purchase purchase combustion fire Billiard Room billiard room washing wash abundant Rich (or "rich" [loaded]) now Now massive Big meet or encounter to march Walk challenge ask followed by later the end stop use use local at the local level Sometimes the urge to add syllables brings middle-class grammar closer to the standards of the poorer classes.Even beyond what they usually recognize.Feeling that "previous" was superior to "vefore," he would say, "I had not been there previous." Dissatisfied with the hierarchical sense of the word "go" when testifying, a police officer said in his testimony: "Then we wepoond (response, response) to the foyer well and entered the office." The passive voice was very helpful in satisfying the middle class need for multiple syllables.For example, when a TV reporter says, "No harm occurred" (eight syllables), he simply means "No one was hurt" (only four syllables).By the same token, Pseudo-Latin is another useful hierarchical technique, as in "in aca.demia" (in an academic institution) has six syllables, certainly better than "in col1eges" (in a university) which has only four syllables.高级，就像有五个音节的in thesuburbia(在郊区)比四个音节的in the suburbs 上档次，同时还表示说话人熟悉古典发音。 （一个真会说拉丁语的人恐怕会要求更准确的表述：in suburbiarm)，不过这里姑且不论。还有一种方法有助于达到增加音节的目的，即词语误用，这就像航空公司的乘务员们处理“use”和“usage”时的作法。一瓶花香浴液（以前叫浴盐）的说明很有等级地标着“使用指南”（Usnge Directions）。 我们可以根据中产阶级（而非贫民阶层）的这个习惯推测他们和极端恐怖主义组织之间的渊源：一番狂暴之后，他们会留下communiques(正式公告)，而非notes（纸条）甚至messnges(便条)。一位温和、无所不知、无所不能的编辑一定会忙着挥动他的蓝铅笔处理中产阶级的语言表达。科尔曼和雷沃特有次间一位男士，他是否比他父亲的境况要优越，他作了肯定的回答，并解释说：“我有硕士学位，但我父亲只读完中学。这意味着我能够进入就业的高薪阶层。”见到这番话，编辑会一笔划掉“意味着”一词后的所有（二十个）音节，代之以“我能挣得更多”。电视里《重访新娘》的广告词会说：“这个礼拜，塞巴斯蒂安的饮酒问题变得越来越严重了”。编辑此时只需在“问题”一词上划叉，说话人不幸的中产阶级身份就会隐蔽得多了。 就像托克维尔和惠特曼曾经意识到的那样，由于一种特殊的地位焦虑深深地烙刻在美国的制度中，凭藉这种中产阶级增添音节的习惯，你就可以避免过分的小心谨慎。这种习惯有时候会扩散到其他等级并令其受感染。在剧院里，你甚至会听到相当有等级的人们说“one-acters”而非“one-acts”(一幕)。我们无从得知究竟是谁认为vo-calisi(声乐演员)要比singer(歌手)一词来得响亮，但所有等级的美国人都会问：“唱片里的声乐演员是谁，最高法院建筑上的徽记镌刻的是“法律之公正平等。”一本叫《就在华盛顿》（1981）书中，E·J·艾泼怀特指出，那些在严肃、智慧和资格方面享有牢靠声誉的人们不会需要多重音节，而只会刻上一个词：“公正”。因为他们在详细考察所有的五个音节之后仍会感觉，一个词足以说明所有的问题。美国人就不同了。除非使用这套术语，否则他们会认为自己的社会等级会随着单词中流露出的谦逊和稚嫩而大打折扣。 在我们开始更加详尽地考察贫民阶层特有的习语之前，我们还应注意另外几个中产阶级身份的标志。格外钟情于隐喻就是一项，例如”磨磨蹭蹭地停下来（grinding to ahalt），或者“囊括全部范围”(run the gamut)，或者，“让人心有余悸”（bogging themind)。这些词从来就没被当成陈辞滥调，而一旦真是这样，倒会更惹人喜爱。中产阶级还反常地迷恋首字母缩拼词，比如“信托证券母亲联合会”(MUFFS，意为婊子。一译者注)。当然，这一并列结构是为了将那些消极的、不洁的因素——也即贫民阶层因素——拒之门外。但同时，它也是为巩固大众、团体或团体意识（例如军“官”们的妻子），缺了它，中产阶级恐怕会分崩离析。 尽管中产阶级不常使用“时髦女性”(milady)和“我的主人”(mine host)一类表达，但广告商们明白，如果用这些词称呼他们，却也不会招致他们的反感。同样一种追求华丽的冲动，驱使中层人士在他们收到的社交请柬上写上“万分抱歉”，而不那么矫揉造作的阶层只会说“免了罢”，不那么强烈地暗示了对该次聚会的兴趣不大。又由于中产阶级的教育水准愈低，他们愈倾向于用矫饰的伪科学术语来指称平淡无奇的事物，或暗示平常行为中的高尚目的：“体恤”(parenting)就是一个例子。说“体恤”几乎就等于用贴在汽车保险杆上的标贴告诉你：驾车时，前方如果有小动物千万别忘了踩刹车。 当我们听到有人毫不在乎less(少，不可数)和fewer （少，可数）之间的区别时，例如“今天，我们的服刑机构里白种犯人更少了(less)……”，或者有人在“就”（as faras）后面不厌其烦地添上“就……而论”（is concemes)或“就……来看”（goes），比如“就共和党来看……”，我们应该明白，我们正在接近一片贫民阶层的习语丛林。贫民阶层一方面通过发音来标志自己的身分，例如在巴克利访谈节目中的那位德州人，在说“Pro-miskii-tv”的同时也在声明“我来自贫民阶层”。他们还通常把现在分词中的“g”去掉：“真他妈丢脸”(it is a fuckin'shanle）；以及过去分词中的“-ed”：于是，“腌牛肉”(cornd beef)就成了“玉米牛肉”(corn beef)甚或“球茎牛肉”(corm beef)。我们还可以听到“瓶啤酒”（bottle beer，“黑皮肤人”(dark-skin people)，“老式烤豆”(Old-fashion bake beans)和“母亲强力啤酒”(Mothers Hi-ghPower Beer)。“先来先得”(first come firet serve)是他们最喜欢的格言。罗杰·普莱斯，研究大众或城市乡巴佬的学者，已经发现了更多的贫民阶层的发音特色：“在南加里福尼亚，哪怕新闻播报员都会说wunnerful（极好的，正确应为wonderful）、anna一bi一od一dicks（抗生素，正确应为antibiotics)和h一eress一ting(有趣的，正确应为intere-sting)。把“有趣”这个词的发音修改成in一eress一ting，并把重音挪到第三个音节，这毫无疑问是城乡贫民人士的作法，或者。是我们一般称作社会下层的作法。普莱斯认为，标志城乡无产者身分的发音还有： fact，读作fack feWer读作fyre president读作present only读作oney finally读作finey 以及，nondemocratic读作innalectshul 当你像电视里的福音传道士莱克斯·休巴德牧师一样发出en-tire一词，这就是在表明，你是一名上层或中层贫民，但是，如果用merrying-gew一词意指馅饼上的泡沫状蛋白，你无疑是一名下层贫民。 各种类型的贫民阶层成员都为表示所有格的撇号（'）深感头痛。这个符号将从英语中彻底消失的种种迹象，证明了贫民阶层的胜利。一块中西部的牌子上写着“现代内阁的”（Modem Cabinet's)，恰好与东部的另一则相映成趣——“拉特杰尔电器公司”（Rutge'Electrical supply Company）。有时撇号干脆就不见了踪影，比如“女卫生问”(LadiesToilei)。但是，在这个小符号看起来像是遭人遗弃的时候，表达的效果反倒离奇地似乎是在强调： 您的司机：“汤姆·贝德里奇” “今日特色菜' “可付小费' 贫民阶层喜欢那些惯常只见诸报端的词语。他们没有意识到，除了那些行文仓促、文体陈腐的新闻，没有人会把教皇称作“大祭司”(Poniiff)，或把议员叫作“立法者”(bewnlaker)，或把美国称为“民族”(the nation)，或把学者称作“教育家”(educator)。中学教师和行政人员并不反感最后这个称呼，他们宁愿欣然接受，因为这个委婉的说法提升了他们的职业尊严。但是大学教授反对把自己定位为“教育家”，其原因纯粹是出于社会等级的考虑，因为这个术语没能够把他们和那些中学里的督导人员、只有临时“文凭”的元知的年轻教师和小学老师一类乌合之众区别开来，如果你下次遇到一位知名的大学教授，尤其是在他的想象里自己的思想和作品早已名扬全国，对他说完“见到您这样一位著名的教育家真是不胜荣幸”之后，不妨看看他的反应：他先是目光下垂片刻，然后又抬起视线，但不是看你，而是投向别处。很快，你就会发现身边不再有他的身影。尽管他没离开之前会始终面带微笑，内心却在忍受痛苦的折磨。 对报纸用语的喜好使得贫民阶层经常犯一些荒唐的错误——误用大词。伦敦《周日时报》的一名作家最近去一个听证会上作证，其目的是为了阻止一场罢工，而某地的一位牧师则被召去进行驱魔： 有读者向我描绘：嘴里长着让人痛苦的“乌尔斯特”（ulster）的女士；天主教国家纪念“圣玛丽·曼陀林”（St．Mary Mandolin）的圣坛；犯罪现场的警察在街道上撒布“手风琴”（an accordi-co）；逝去的乔治五世安卧在“座椅弹射器”（catapult)里的动人场面……总喜欢被书本“装饰”(embossed)的学生，靠“射精椅”（ejacula-tion seat）离开飞机的飞行员；……沧水的游泳者被“人工授精”(insem1nation)；彩虹包纳了“卧姿”（rectum）的所有颜色。 （这一段引述了向《周日时报》投稿的读者们犯的用词错误，荒唐可笑，Ulster应为Ulser，指溃疡。Mary Mandolin 应为Mary Magdlene，指抹大拉的马利亚，那酥最著名的门徒之一。accodion应为accoed，指拦截带。catapu1t应为catafa1que，指灵柩车。embossed应为immersed，指沉醉。ejaculation seat应为ejection seat，指弹射座椅。insemination应为respiration，指工人呼吸。rectum应为spectrum，指光谱。一译者注） 你也可能听到高层贫民阶层常用“倒数第二”（penul-timate）来指绝对最末的或极端的，比如“核能武器是倒数第二的威胁”。就在数年前，文化史开始出现一个意义重大的时期，它的重要标志是：贫民阶层开始掌握公共场合的修辞艺术。我是指，汽油运输卡车后部的警示牌从INFLAMMABLE（易燃）换成FLAMMABLE(可燃的）。公共教育的普及终于造就出这样一群民众，他们不再将前缀“in一”视为增强语气效果的必要手段。贫民阶层，也就是“FLAMMABui：“警示牌的读者，如果听说某物（比如一本书或一件艺术品)“价值不菲”(invaluable)，立刻就会把它扔进垃圾箱。（作者此处指贫民会把增强前缀“in 一”与反意前缀“im一”混淆，以至于出现上面举例的情况。一译者注）有关修辞的问题变得愈来愈滑稽可笑。贫民阶层对“inflanlmable”一词惜懂无知；无独有偶，中产阶级则喜欢炮制出这样～些东西，比如一块浴室地面护垫上的标贴上写着：“易燃（Flammable）……勿在易燃触媒(ignition souroe)附近使用。”这句话的作者也许认为，迟钝到只能理解flanlnlable一词的读者却应该有能力琢磨出“易燃触媒”指的是火。 如果说出人意料的沉默是高等阶层的标志（很有必要，例如南希·米特福特所提到的在听到“见到您真高兴”这样一声道别之后应该沉默），噪音和叫嚷则属于贫民阶层，他们会在比赛一决胜负的时刻大叫“啊呼（Wahoo)！”（这里主要指冰球和橄榄球赛）。一位芝加哥的警察（很可能是高层贫民阶层）告诉史塔兹·特克尔，他发现了他的阶层与更低阶层的重要区别。“在我父母争吵的时候，我妈妈会把所有的窗子关上，因为他们并不希望邻居听到什么。可是他们（指那些低层贫民类型）反而故意打开门和窗子，又是尖叫又是高声抱怨……。”贫民阶层必须当众展示自己的存在和出现。因此，公共场合里的交谈都是为了让别人听见（或者仰慕）。贫民阶层似乎希望以自己生气勃勃的喧嚣，以其音调。速度和节奏来博得他人的恭维。中产阶级出于对取笑和失败的恐惧，在社交场合绝不会有这种表现。“让贫民阶层去表现吧，他们反正就那样了。”噪音是夸大其辞的形式之一。上层迄今仍认为出售（不论什么）是种粗俗的行为，原因是，促销商品的艺术主要与夸大其辞有关。因此，发音尽可能轻声短促是高层人士的作风，而贫民阶层总是要喋喋不休地把每一件事重复上两三次。“嗯——，”这是上层人士常说的一个完整句。 贫民阶层还有什么别的语言标志吗？Have.例如他们对宾格的元知。贫民阶层依稀还能忆起把自己放在未位是礼貌的说法，比如，“他和我当时在那儿”(He and l were there)，随即便将这一原则推而广之他说：Between he and I(“在他和我之间”，正确说法是between heand me。一译者注）。贫民阶层还跟“像”(like)这个词过不去。他们记得，中产阶级的中学教师曾经教导过自己用“like”这个词可能有暗示自己是文盲的危险，但由于记忆不太准确，他们干脆用“as”取而代之，但求不惹麻烦。所以他们会说He looks as his father（“他看上去作为他父亲”。正确说法应用like，意思是“他看上去像他父亲”。一译者注）。 贫民阶层的另一“个标志就是很难处理好复杂句，这也是那些充斥了繁琐的伪“正确”分词结构该负的责任。例如，“正是基于那天冷，炉子点着了。”又由于动名词的用法非贫民阶层能力所及，他们不得不增加单词的数目（他们经常很高兴这么做，不是吗？）。“看演出的时候，坐在他前面的那些人气疯了，原因是这样的，他实在讲话讲得大多”，而不是简单他说：“他在演出时讲话，惹恼了前排的人。”就像对“like”的缺少把握，他们还记得关于lying （躺）和laing（放）的两三事，可究竟是什么却记不清了，于是他们索性把问题简化，只用“放”这个词。于是，人们“放”在海滩上，床上、草地上、人行道上，一点也不操心是否会有与性有关的暗示。 最后还有一个贫民阶层的烙印：他们喜欢被人称作“某某某（名姓齐全）先生。”(在英语口语中，称某人某某先生，一般只称姓氏，如Mr．Smith，不称全名。一译者注）因此，贫民阶层经常在公共场合被冠以这个称呼，不论是聆听训话，还是被人谈及。不管这在世故的人们听来有多么不妥，他们总会引以为人生的幸事。于是我们也就会听到“弗兰克·希那特拉先生”，“霍华德·科墨尔先生”。或者，收音机里：“女士们先生们（矜持的停顿），请听弗兰克·培尔杜先生。” 如果说每个阶层都会对特定的词语作出独特反应的话，上层最喜欢的可能是“安全”或“液体”（secure和liquid)。中上阶层则喜用“对的”(right)，比如指做事做对了：“我真的希望玛菲的婚礼一切都不出差错。”中产阶级也喜欢这个词，但真正让他们兴奋的词是“豪华”（lux-ury），比如：那些漂亮的单间“豪华”公寓。“一尘不染”(spotless)也是中产阶级宠爱的词语，比如：“一尘不染”的地板、桌布、碗等等。上层贫民不厌其烦地使用“不费力”(easy)——不费力的学期，六篇不费力的课文。往下的阶层当然更喜欢“免费”(flee)一词：“只要免费，没有我们不要的”，下层贫民阶层的家庭主妇常会这么说。 只须稍稍注意一下各个阶层使用的日常习语有什么区别，哪怕是最感情用事的人也会信服，这个国家不但有一个严格的社会等级体系，而且，那些语言学意义上的等级界限几乎是不可跨越的。在道别时说“今天过得开心”和只说“再见”这两类人当中，在见面时说“见到你很高兴”和只说“你好”这两类人当中存在着一个几乎是深不见底的社会等级鸿沟。在那些将“随时”(momentarily)理解成“马上”(in a moment)（扬声器里航班机长的声音：“大家注意，我们马上就要起飞了”），和那些把它理解为“暂且”（for a moment）的人们之间，或许倒是有一些持久的亲和力，但不一定会很牢固，就像将“类型”(type)想象成形容词(“她是个很有等级的类型人”)和明白它仅仅是名词或动词的人们之间存在的那种关系一样，异常脆弱。 令人黯然神伤的是，一旦长到成年人的岁数，这些标记就几乎成了我们不可磨灭。没法更换的烙印。我们一生都无法从我们出生的阶层中逃离。但即便我们采用本章提供的所有建议、接纳所有的高等阶层的言语风格，并与所有低层的惯用语彻底决裂，结果大抵仍会无济于事。 -------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------