Chapter 32 Chapter 31 "The Manhattan Project"

The atomic theory in the philosophical sense was born more than two thousand years ago.The modern atomic theory based on scientific experiments and logical deduction was established by the British scientist Dalton between 1803 and 1808.Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895, Becquerel discovered uranium rays in 1896, and Soti and Rutherford proposed the theory of element decay in 1902, which made a breakthrough in atomic theory.In September 1905, Einstein proposed the "mass-energy equivalence principle", which laid the theoretical foundation for nuclear physics and particle physics, and revealed the huge energy contained in the nucleus. The concept of "atomic energy" was originally derived from this pregnancy……

Of course, the term "atomic energy" is not accurate.It is not "atom" but "nucleus" that contains huge energy; therefore, the correct term is not "atomic energy" but "nuclear energy".But the key is not in the words, but in the "views" of many scientists, especially great scientists.Einstein himself said that atomic energy cannot be released.Rutherford even denounced the large-scale acquisition of atomic energy as "nonsense" at the 1933 annual meeting of the Royal Society.Hahn, a German scientist who discovered nuclear fission in December 1938 and later won the Nobel Prize, believed that nuclear fission is not practical because "it is against the will of God".Bohr, the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922, a master of nuclear physics, and president of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences, claimed until early 1939 that he could prove that nuclear fission could not be destroyed "according to fifteen powerful conclusions". Practical application...

Of course, there are many who hold the opposite view. Neutrons were just discovered in February 1932. In October 1933, Hungarian physicist Szilard pointed out that as long as an element can be found, its nucleus will emit a The other two neutrons can achieve a "chain reaction" and release huge atomic energy.In 1935, Szilard had foreseen the "dangerous consequences" of nuclear research; the same Szilard, in 1939, pointed out in a letter that he might "build an atomic bomb that would be a great threat to mankind." "... Dr. Olmhos knew that Ding Jieqiong had always supported Szilard's views and was also a good friend with Szilard himself.This young female scientist focused on neutron research as soon as she arrived in the United States in the autumn of 1934, and then focused on uranium research as soon as she arrived in Berkeley in the spring of 1939.It can now be seen clearly: she has been looking for elements and means to release atomic energy...

Aum spends most of his time in the "U Committee", but still meets with Joan frequently—sometimes in the office, laboratory or conference room, sometimes in Joan's house, the small dark red building, and sometimes going out together to attend academic conferences car, train.During the meetings, he often consulted Joan on various issues of experimental design or theoretical calculations.All these issues were related to the development of the atomic bomb, but both sides knew it. The existence and operation of "Committee U" is the top state secret of the United States! What are the elements that can cause a "chain reaction"?Scientists searched one by one in the periodic table.Italian scientist Fermi experimented with a series of heavy metal elements.In the autumn of 1934, he first used neutrons as "cannonballs" to bombard uranium nuclei in his laboratory in Rome, but the expected effect was not achieved.However, in December 1938, German scientists Hahn and Strassmann bombarded uranium nuclei with neutrons as "cannonballs" at the "Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Chemistry" in Berlin according to the method suggested by Meitner. Made a major discovery...

Austrian female physicist Meidina is Jewish.After Austria was annexed by Hitler, she was forced to flee Germany to Sweden.She explained Hahn and Strassmann's discovery in January 1939: the uranium nucleus split into two large fragments, and "nuclear fission" was achieved!Her nephew, the physicist Frish, immediately started to do experiments, and found in the ionization chamber the strong pulses caused by the fragments produced by the fission of uranium nuclei, proving that this kind of splitting did release huge energy-this is "atomic energy" ! Hitler's anti-Jewish policy forced a large number of outstanding scientists to flee Germany, including nine Nobel Prize winners.They all ended up in the United States, where they were enshrined as "national treasures."When government representatives met with five eminent scientists in March 1939 to learn about the interests of nuclear physics research in the United States, Dr. Olmhorse was the only scientist of non-Jewish descent among the five.They warned: If Hitler builds the atomic bomb first, it will be a disaster for all mankind!

Therefore, Szilard drafted a letter on August 2, 1939, which was later called "the most important letter of the twentieth century". Presented to President Roosevelt.The letter pointed out: "uranium element may be transformed into an important new energy source in the near future", "a new type of powerful bomb can be manufactured from this"; "Same, and this may well mean that fascist Germany is trying to "pre-emptive strikes"...Einstein said this before signing: "This will be the first time in history that mankind will use energy that does not come from the sun."

In view of Einstein's reputation and the particularity of the contents of the letter, Roosevelt became alarmed.A relevant organization was immediately established, the so-called "U Committee", and its most important work content at present is to grasp the uranium resources used as the raw material of the atomic bomb. Uranium deposits are distributed all over the world.Uranium deposits have been found in the Czech Republic, the United States, Canada, South Africa and the west coast of India, but the highest-grade deposits are in Belgium's African colony of the Congo.This is a kind of black stone that shimmers with golden light, with a green tint. The average content of uranium oxide in the hand-selected ore is more than 65%, while the ore in the United States and Canada is only 2% in one thousand, and the ore in South Africa is even only 10,000%. three thirds...

Germany has already occupied Belgium, and together with Mussolini, has occupied some countries in North Africa, which are very close to the Congo.The United States took decisive measures, and in October 1941, more than 1,250 tons of Congolese uranium ore were packed in 2,000 iron drums and shipped to Staten Island, New York; in March 1942, This batch of ore was transferred to the treasury of Fort Knox, a major national gold reserve.The United States spent 37.5 million U.S. dollars to purchase this pile of "stones"... "You see, Joan, uranium ore is worthless at first, and its entire value is only the value of the radium that coexists in it." Aum took a deep breath and sighed: "Madame Curie discovered radium back then, like It seems that Columbus discovered the New World; but what is the use of radium? Yes, it is radioactive, one million times stronger than uranium, and it is said that it can be used to treat cancer; however, it is this radioactivity that makes Madame Curie and her laboratory A lot of people got cancer and died. Oh, and it can be used as a luminous paint on clock instruments, that's all-it's this Hahn guy who made uranium invaluable!"

Ding Jieqiong was sitting on a soft single sofa.The potted orchid on the flower stand beside her was well maintained, with more than a dozen stems protruding in all directions, and each stem had more than a dozen pale yellow-green flowers, and the petals and calyx were covered with purple-red spots.Aum heard from Joan that this is a pot of "Jianlan". It is different from other varieties of orchids. It blooms not in spring but in midsummer, and it emits a strong fragrance instead of a light fragrance.So, as soon as Aum stepped into this living room, he sniffed vigorously, greedily, and sat down until he felt that he had smelled enough...

Joan had been listening quietly, letting Aum have her way; she rarely interrupted, occasionally getting up to refill her teacup.Now, she finally lifted her wrist to look at her watch and interrupted the other party: "Thank you, Aum, you have talked so much and taught me a lot. We had a really good conversation, just like every conversation." , she smiled slightly: "However, you have been talking for three and a half hours, but you have not touched the topic." "theme?" "That is to say, the purpose of your coming to my house today." "Joan, why do you have to have a purpose? I often come to see you and like to chat with you." Aum suddenly stuttered, "It's like the 'afternoon tea' at Cambridge University: professors drink tea, eat snacks, and chat , heated debates, many meaningful collisions of ideas, genius inspirations, and epoch-making discoveries often come from this way.”

"No, Orm, this is not the time for 'afternoon tea'; not even in Cambridge, because German planes and missiles are hitting Greater London and England every day." Joan smiled and shook her head. "I sense you have something to say." To say, and to keep silent. I know you didn't mean to propose—you'd be much braver otherwise." "Oh, Joan, you are always so smart, sensitive and accurate!" Aum thought for a while, couldn't help laughing, and shook his head, "Yes, I have a purpose for coming to your house today, no, it should be said yes Mission, very important mission—” "Speak! Om, you are my most respected teacher and friend." Joan looked intently at Dr. Olmhus, "If I can do something for you, I will be very grateful." "Thank you, Joan! That's how it is." Om slightly considered his words and said in a solemn tone, "I want to invite you out of the mountain." "To develop an atomic bomb?" "certainly." "You have consulted on relevant theoretical and technical issues many times, and I have provided opinions without reservation." "No, I want you to join the 'Manhattan Project' directly." "It's not called 'U Committee' anymore?" "Yes, it's time to use weapons!" "How about 'direct participation'?" "That is to say, be included in the 'engineering' establishment, work and receive salary in the place arranged by the 'engineering', obey the arrangement and dispatch there, until the atomic bomb is successfully developed and blows up on Hitler's head!" "'Manhattan', I have to live in New York?" Manhattan is a long rock island between the east bank of the Hudson River estuary in the eastern United States and the East River, covering an area of ​​57 square kilometers. It is the starting point of New York City.It is extremely prosperous, connected with other parts of the urban area by underground railways, bridges and ferries. Telecommunications, cultural publications and commerce are very developed. Wall Street at the southern end is an international financial and trade center, world-renowned... "No, it's not 'Manhattan', but 'Manhattan Project'. It's a code name. Because 'Manhattan' is a well-known place name, it is better than a strange name, and it is not easy to attract the attention of the enemy. The project is very large, and the participants may There will be hundreds of thousands of people, billions of dollars will be spent, and the most cutting-edge science and technology will be used in the world today. The participating universities, research institutes, military forces and enterprises will involve energy allocation and administrative regions all over the country and even Overseas. But I don't think any project will be in New York." "Hey, the 'Manhattan Project'..." Ding Jieqiong said in a playful tone. "The codename was chosen by General Perry." "General Perry?" "Oh, Aaron Perry, graduated from West Point Military Academy in his early years. He was a colonel in the Army Corps of Engineers. He is very capable. He has successfully presided over many major military projects and handled billions of dollars a year. His greatest advantage is that he is good at seeing people and employ people..." "So he took a fancy to Dr. Olmhouse, the nerd." "I don't know how he likes that nerd," Orm laughed, "but I know that's why the War Department likes him—put him in charge of the whole 'Manhattan Project', and because of it he was promoted to a one-star general." Ding Jieqiong was silent for a while: "You mentioned me to him?" "Yes. I am responsible for recommending scientists." Aum nodded, "They are all Nobel Prize winners and first-rate scientists. They must be indispensable in the three fields of theory, experiment and production of atomic bomb development. Outstanding, most promising and original physicists, chemists and engineers." Ding Jieqiong was silent for a while: "Why do you think of me, Aum?" "Of course I'll think of you!" Orm shouted. "Joan, I know you best in all of North America." "Haste makes waste" is a saying and a rule - but not in wartime.From the "Committee U" to the "Manhattan Project", it's all about being quick, first, ahead of the enemy, building our atomic bomb before fascist Germany uses it against us, and using it to strike and destroy Hitler!But how to "grab" it?Although nuclear fission has been proven, the atomic bomb is still only a "theory"; there are a lot of theories, but too few have been verified; in order to speed up, most of the experimental stages necessary for large-scale industrial production have to be omitted; the road to success starts with theory ( It's "theory" again!) It says there are many, but maybe none of them can lead to "Chang'an"... To give a brief example: the "explosive" used in atomic bombs is uranium, but the production of uranium is not easy!According to the current technology, the monthly output can only be measured in micrograms or milligrams-if this is the case, continuous production for more than ten years or even decades may not be enough to build an atomic bomb.And, not in micrograms or milligrams, in what, grams, or kilograms?The scientists who participated in the "Manhattan Project", including the "Nobel Prize winners and first-class scientists" among them, did not even know how much uranium was needed for an atomic bomb, and whether it should be metal uranium or enriched uranium; Uranium, and its proper enrichment level is not known.The key is the minimum amount of uranium used in an atomic bomb, the so-called "critical mass".Yes, for this problem, experimental physicists have experiments, and theoretical physicists have calculations. There are dozens of experimental reports and calculation sheets, and the calculation results are also dozens of times different! The "Manhattan Project" requires strong economic strength, a strong industry, advanced science and technology, and superior organization and planning...but the most important thing is talents!Orm was ordered to recommend scientists and make a list, and of course he thought of Joan.In his eyes, Joan is a model of oriental women.Joan likes physical activities and is good at swimming, badminton and tennis, but the most frequent way of exercising is to practice dance and gymnastics alone at home.Joan, for all her eloquence, was rarely in the pulpit, always in the laboratory; that was the case in Pasadena, and she was still in Berkeley.Both Aum and Carmon said: "Don't take Frege's words seriously!" But she always laughed and didn't answer.There are many academic conferences in the United States, almost every month and every week.Joan often attends these meetings, where she sits still, listens, and speaks little.In fact, she has a very high level, and her experimental design is often exquisite and unexpected; her theoretical insights are unique, and her logical thinking can be called extraordinary... Orm often comes to see Joan.Even during his unusually busy period after joining the "U Committee."He knew that to come to Joan for a chat, to drink tea with her, to eat snacks, to talk, to argue passionately, often sparked a spark of inspiration, heralding some major breakthrough in the field of theory or technology.For example, Joan is one of the scientists engaged in research on reactors, but others only consider using reactors to obtain energy, but Joan considers using it to "activate" elements to make them radioactive, so as to continuously produce radioactive isotopes on a large scale for industrial use. and medical needs.The first human atomic bomb has not even had a shadow yet, but Joan thought that the high temperature and high pressure generated by the atomic bomb underground explosion can turn graphite into diamond—she even calculated it on the spot with a slide rule, pen and paper while drinking tea. The value of the radioactive isotopes produced by the reactor exceeds the construction and operation costs of the reactor, and the value of the diamond produced by the underground atomic bomb explosion exceeds the cost of the atomic bomb test itself... It's a bit like the "afternoon tea" at Cambridge University.But the participants are not a group of professors, but just two people.In the past, they mostly talked about relativity, gravitational theory, quantum mechanics and elementary particles, but recently they talked about reactors, accelerators, uranium separation methods or the "equivalent" of atomic bomb explosions; today, for the first time, they talked about General Perry , speaking of the "Manhattan Project"... "Tell me, Orm," Joan asked quietly now, "what on earth do you want me to do?" "As I said just now, I hope you will directly participate in the 'Manhattan Project'." "I've heard that! What I don't understand is, what formalities should be followed for this to happen?" "Joan, let's put it this way, oh, can you fulfill such a procedure, the procedure of becoming an American citizen..." Aum hesitated, "This is not only what General Perry meant, but also what I meant, no, it's not just He and I mean, but the provisions of wartime law..." "Years ago, you suggested me to apply for American citizenship." The female scientist stared at her teacher and friend, "Do you remember my attitude at that time?" "You, Joan, you said no." "When did I say that I might have changed my attitude?" "No, no." "In this case, as the person who knows me best in North America, why do you disrespect my personality and wishes?" "Listen to me, Joan," Aum rubbed his hands together, "this time, this time is different..." "What's the difference?" "This time is for the victory of World War II, for the complete defeat of fascism - this is the most sacred cause of mankind..." Ding Jieqiong interrupted the other party: "Where is Hull now?" "In, in, in China." "Yes, he is in China." The female scientist said with a serious expression, "so he knows, you and I know, and the whole world knows how millions of Chinese soldiers and civilians have fought bloody battles against the Japanese invaders for so many years." What a tragic price and sacrifice they paid—why don’t you ask them to become American citizens first, and then give them the right to fight for the victory of World War II, for the complete defeat of fascism, and for the most sacred cause of mankind?” "Joan, don't get me wrong! You should be able to understand the special nature of the 'Manhattan Project'. It is carried out in the United States, it is top-secret, and security reviews must be strengthened. No country in the world will be exempt from this situation. According to According to the wartime law, you must have American or British citizenship to participate in this 'project'. The British government sent dozens of scientists according to this regulation..." "What if it turns out that the traitors and spies are the Americans and the British?" "This possibility is extremely small, and this is another matter..." Aum hesitated for a long time, and then he asked suddenly, "Joan, you, oh, don't you respect Einstein very much?" "Does that have anything to do with what we're talking about now?" "Einstein became an American citizen in 1940—even for a great man like him, he did not acquire American citizenship until he had lived in the United States for a sufficient number of years in accordance with the immigration and naturalization laws of the United States." "Live enough years," Ding Jieqiong looked directly at the other party, "how many years?" "Five, five years. Yes, more than five years..." "What about after living for a long time?" "Submit an application, and after review and approval, perform the oath of allegiance procedures in the local court..." "Allegiance, allegiance to whom?" "The United States of America, of course." Ding Jieqiong looked at Aum coldly and didn't speak. "And, for example, Fermi," said Orm, with a deep look at Joan, "he is not Jewish, but his wife Laura is. Hitler banned German citizens from receiving Nobel Prizes in 1936, but Mo Solini had not had time to do so; so, at the end of 1938, after the Fermi family went to Stockholm to receive the award, instead of returning to Rome, they fled to the United States in early 1939. You may not know it, Fermi M is now the pillar of the 'U Committee' and the 'Manhattan Project' - but even so, he has not yet obtained American citizenship; and legally speaking, he is even an 'enemy alien', so he still cannot own telescopes, cameras and Short-wave radio, business trips cannot be flown because the President prohibits 'enemy aliens from making any flights or ascending into the air.' Each business trip must submit a report to the U.S. District Attorney in the place of residence seven days in advance, receive and hold the U.S. District Attorney He can only leave after obtaining the official's approval letter..." "Aum," Ding Jieqiong interrupted, "are China and the United States allies or 'enemies'?" "No, Joan, please listen to me, okay?" Aum was a little breathless, "Fermi can understand, understand all this, first of all understand that the United States is a country ruled by law. He abides by the relevant regulations very well. Recently he asked me , when will I be able to obtain American citizenship. I figured it out and told him that I have to wait until the summer of 1944..." "Stop talking, Aum!" The female scientist interrupted her again with her eyes burning, "I'm not Einstein, I'm not Fermi—" Aum stared blankly at him. "If you forgot my name, let me say it again: my name is Ding Jieqiong." "Joan..." "I'm sorry, Aum, I'm very tired." Ding Jieqiong was pale and sank deep into the sofa; she propped her forehead with her left hand, her half-closed tears flickered, and murmured, "I want to be alone for a while." "That, that's good." Aum got up worriedly, a little at a loss, "But, Joan, your complexion is not good, I don't worry..." "I'll see you off, Aum." Ding Jieqiong said, also stood up. The two silently stepped out of the small building, walked through the garden, and walked out of the iron gate.Orm got into a black Chevrolet.Ding Jieqiong turned around, opened the mailbox, and took out a stack of newspapers and a letter.Under the milky white dim street light, she glanced at the envelope, suddenly startled, waved and shouted, "Come back, Orm, there's a letter from Hull, Hull!"