Chapter 19 Section 06

twenty As truth emerges more quickly from error than from confusion, I thought it advisable, after three preliminary lists (such as I have shown) to have been made and considered, to allow the understanding to rely on the To make an attempt to explain nature in a positive way by using a series of examples and the force of examples encountered elsewhere.This attempt I call the indulgence of the understanding, or the beginning of explanation, or the first harvest. A preliminary observation concerning the form of heat is to point out that the form of a thing is to be found in each and all instances in which that thing itself is found (this is clear from what has been said); otherwise it is not a form. .It must therefore be said that contradictory instances cannot exist.At the same time, we would like to point out that the formula appears more clearly and conspicuously in some cases than in others; is relatively small.Some of these cases I call prominent or conspicuous cases. ①①See Article 2 and 4 of Volume Two. - translator

Now we can move on to the preliminary findings regarding hot French. From all and each of the above cases, there is one quality to which heat belongs, and which becomes its specific action, and that is motion.This is most evident in the flame, which is always in motion.The same is true in boiling or gradually boiling liquids, which are also in constant motion.This is also manifested in the rapidity and increase of heat caused by motion, as in the case of bellows and storms, see Table 3, Case 29; and also in cases of other motions, see The third table, the 28th, 312 cases.This is also manifested in the extinguishing of fire and heat by any pressure which restrains movement, see the third table, examples 30 and 32.This is also illustrated by the fact that all bodies are destroyed by intense fire and heat, and at any rate cause visible changes; this clearly shows that heat can cause a A commotion, confusion, and violent movement, visibly leading to the disintegration of the object.

It must be noted that when I speak of motion as a kind and heat as its species, I do not mean that heat begets motion or motion begets heat (although in some cases both are also true. ), but that heat itself, its essence and element, is motion and nothing else. ②However, there are some restrictions on the distinction of species in this movement. I shall speak of these limitations later on.Now, to avoid confusion, a few caveats. ① Fleur pointed out that heat and motion are not only sometimes interchangeable on certain occasions, but can be consistently transformed into each other. - translator

② Kachin pointed out that this means that the reason why heat is heat is in motion.In this way, Bacon seemed to believe that he had really mastered the French method of heat. - translator Sensitive heat is a relative concept, which is related to people rather than the universe. Its correct definition should only be the effect of heat on animal spirits.And it is variable in itself, for the same object gives rise to the perception of cold as well as of heat, according to the pre-existing state of the senses.This point can be clearly seen from the fourth example in the third table. Also the transference of heat, or the extraditional property of heat, that is, the property by which one hot body becomes hot when applied to another, cannot be confused with the mode of heat either.Because heat is one thing, heat transfer is another.Heat is produced by frictional motion without any prior heat, and this example proves that heat transfer should be excluded from the equation of heat.Even if the proximity of a hot body produces heat, this does not follow from the law of heat, but depends entirely on a higher and more general quality, namely, that which is called assimilation or self-multiplication; Questions for further investigation. ①①See the eleventh type of movement discussed in Article 48 of Volume Two. - translator

Furthermore, our conception of fire is conventional and useless; it is formed by combining any hot and bright body, such as ordinary flame and red hot body. of. Having thus cleared away all confusion, I shall come at last to those real distinctions of species which give the limits to which motion constitutes the formula of heat. ①The first point of distinction is this.Heat is an expansive motion,②by which a body strives to expand and stretch itself to a greater extent or extent than it previously occupied.This distinction is most easily observed in flames, where both smoke and dense vapors conspicuously expand and expand themselves into flames. ① Fleur pointed out that in the language used by scholastic logic, the so-called distinction is the division of classes to form species.

②Fuller pointed out that Bacon excluded "the expansion motion of the object as a whole" in the tenth case of Article 18 of Volume II, and said under the third point of difference in this Article that "the expansion motion of heat is not the uniform motion of the entire object." unanimously, but only between some of its smaller molecules'.But it is difficult to see how the expansion of the small molecules of an object can not cause the expansion of the whole object, especially Bacon's denial of the existence of a void between the molecules (see Book II, Article 8), and it is even more difficult to explain.But the fact is that all bodies (with very few exceptions, such as the case of water at 32 to 39 degrees Fahrenheit, and the case of bismuth at the moment of solidification) do not expand with increasing temperature. - translator

This is also seen in all boiling liquids, which are visibly expanding, rising, and bubbling, and continue this process of self-expansion until they become Much more matter, that is to say into vapour, into smoke, or into air. The same is true of all wood, and of some combustible substances, in which oozing often occurs, and is always evaporating. This also applies to molten metal.Metals, being of the most compact structure, are not apt to expand and swell; but as their essence expands in itself, and thereby impregnates a desire for further expansion, it compels and agitates its coarser molecules. into a liquid state.If the heat is still greatly increased, most of their plastids are decomposed and brought into a state where they are easy to evaporate.

The same is true of iron and stone; they are softened, though not melted and decomposed. ① After the wooden stick is placed in the hot ash and exposed to heat for a while, it becomes flexible and bendable. This is the plot. ① Kachin points out that Bacon seems to be thinking here that iron and certain kinds of stone might not melt.But Herschel said: "It is not yet known that there are any solids which, when heated sufficiently high, do not melt and eventually dissipate into vapor." See Tractatus 357. But the best performance of this expansion movement is still in the air, which expands continuously and significantly when it encounters a little heat, as can be seen from the third and eighth examples in the third table.

This is also shown in the opposite quality of cold. ①Cold tightens and shrinks all things, ②so that under severe frost nails fall from walls, copper vessels crack, and hot glass shatters when suddenly cooled.Similarly, the air will contract when it is slightly cold, as in the thirty-eighth example in the third table.These instances I shall return to at the end in my inquiry about cold. ① Fleur pointed out that here, we see the concept of coldness as a positive quality. - translator ②Fuller pointed out that this sentence is not always true. For example, water pipes are often cracked due to freezing. - translator

In this (which I am now speaking of) distinction of species, the actions of the two properties, heat and cold, are opposite to each other; sports.But when we see that the following two distinctions of species (which I shall presently say) apply equally to the hot and cold qualities, and that they both exhibit much common activity (cf. We should not be surprised when the second table, the third and the second case). The second difference is a modification of the previous point; that is to say: heat is an expanding motion towards the circle, but with the condition that the body must also have an upward motion. ① There can undoubtedly be many mixed movements.For example, an arrow or a javelin turns while advancing, and advances while turning.Likewise, the movement of heat is at the same time a movement of expansion and an upward movement.This difference can be observed from the following experiments: when putting iron tongs or fire chopsticks into the fire, if you insert them vertically and hold the top, you will feel burning hands after a while; It won't be so fast when it's hot. ①Kachin pointed out that heat itself has no upward tendency; molecules subjected to heat certainly rise, but this is only the result of molecular expansion (that is, in terms of its density, it occupies more space than other molecules).

Fleur also said that this phenomenon exists only in gases and liquids, and it is called circulation; there is no similar phenomenon in solids, and the example of iron tongs or fire chopsticks given by Bacon is imaginary. This can also be observed when distillation is carried out with descenders, that is, when one lifts various fine flower eaux-de-vie. Human effort has discovered the means of placing the fire not below but above so that it burns weaker. ①Not only is the flame upward, but all heat is also upward. On this point, let us also experiment on the opposite property of cold, to see whether cold shrinks a body downward, as heat expands a body upward.Take two identical rods of iron or two tubes of glass, warm them a little, and place two sponges, soaked in cold water or snow, under one rod and on the head of the other.I imagine that the ends of the rod with the snow on its head will cool down more quickly than the ends of the rod with the snow on the bottom, just the opposite of the heat. ① Fleur pointed out that both circulation and conduction can distribute heat in liquid, and the former distributes more heat.Evidently, heat rises more rapidly than falls in it, and the reason for this has been explained in the preceding note.Therefore, putting the fire on top of the liquid will heat it up more slowly than on the bottom. - translator The third kind of difference is that the expansion of heat is not uniform throughout the body, ① but only among some of its smaller molecules; ② this movement is blocked, resisted, and struck. back and forth, causing the body to acquire an alternating motion to and fro, ③constantly trembling, struggling, struggling, and enraged by the retaliation, thus emitting a fiery and fiery fury. ① Fleur points out that this simply means that some molecules get heated earlier than others, so that as far as the whole block is concerned, different parts of it get heated unevenly within a certain period of time.But this situation does not hinder the expansion of the whole object, even if only a part of the molecules expand, the whole object must expand accordingly.See the relevant note under the first point of distinction in this article. - translator ② Fleur pointed out that attention should be paid to the use of the term "smaller molecules" here, and in the next point this kind of molecules should be clearly distinguished from the last and smallest molecules.Bacon thought of heat as this motion of molecules.Thus Bacon's theory of heat differs greatly from that of later scholars, such as Tyndall, not in kind but in degree. - translator ③Fuller pointed out that the description here is quite like first seeing the theory of heat fluctuations.Kachin also said that this idea of ​​heat wave transmission, like the transmission of light, sound or color waves, may be correct.But if heat is taken to be material (as it seems almost certainly to be), then the wave theory must be abandoned. - translator This kind of distinction is most evident in flames and boiling liquids, which are constantly trembling, expanding, and sinking in small parts. This is also shown in bodies which are so densely organized that they do not expand in size when heated or burned, as is the case with burning iron,1 where the heat is really great. ① See the note under the tenth case in Article 18 of Volume 2. - translator This is also shown by the fact that the fire burns best in the coldest weather. ①①Refer to the notes under Item 36, Article 13, Volume 2. - translator This distinction can also be seen in cases where the air expands in the heat and cold table without being hindered or resisted, that is to say, when the expansion is even and uniform, there is no perceptible effect. hot.Also, when the wind comes out of the enclosure, although it rushes with the greatest force, there is no great heat that can be felt; this is because the movement belongs to the whole, and there is no alternation between several molecules. Because of the movement.In view of this, we should try to see if the flame burns more strongly toward the sides than in the center. There is another situation that also shows this difference.All burning acts on the tiny pores of the burned object; therefore, the burning action is like countless needle points digging, drilling, nailing and piercing an object.All strong waters, if fitted to the bodies upon which they are applied, act with their erosive and irritating properties in the same way that fire does, and are the result of this action. This distinction of species of heat (which is what I am now speaking of) is also common to the quality of cold; The trend is the same.Thus it appears that, whether the molecules of a body move inwardly or outwardly, the manner of motion is always the same, though the degree of force is very different, for we have nothing extremely cold here on earth. ① Refer to the twenty-seventh example in the ninth table. ① Kachin pointed out that this point is discussed in more detail in Article 50 of Volume Two (section 6, on the third method of imposing actions on natural objects).In Bacon's time almost nothing was known about the means of cooling (or, more correctly, of evaporating heat), which inevitably led him to see the lack of extreme cold as a deficiency.Our ability to produce cold is much more limited than our ability to produce heat, and remains so today.The sudden expansion of gas from a liquid state into a vapor is the most powerful source of cold hitherto known.See Section 354 of Tractatus Natural Philosophy by Herschel. - translator The fourth point of distinction of species is a modification of the third; that is to say, the motion of thrusting or piercing must have been more or less rapid rather than lazy, and must have been composed of some admittedly small, but not last minute, movements. Rather, it is carried out by molecules that are larger to a certain extent. ①①Fuller pointed out that the latter point is wrong, and seems to be derived from the following imaginary contrast of time and fire.Heat is the motion of the last and finest molecules of matter, whatever their nature may be.See the note under the third point of distinction in this article. - translator This difference can be seen from the comparison between the effects produced by fire and those produced by time or years. It is true that the action of time or time, which dries up, erodes, darkens, and reduces objects to ashes, is much subtler than that of fire, but its effect is no less; but since this motion is very slow, its effect is only As for some extremely small molecules, the heat cannot be felt. This can also be seen by comparing the melting of iron with that of gold. ① The melting of gold does not excite any heat, while the melting of iron is accompanied by a violent heat, though at about the same time.The reason for this is: In gold, the acid that decomposes enters gently and acts delicately, while the molecules of gold yield easily; in iron, the acid enters violently and conflicts, while the molecules of iron yield Has greater tenacity. ①Refer to Volume 1, Article 19, and Article 12, Item 25. - translator This is also to some extent seen in some gangrene, which, owing to the delicate nature of the decay process, does not provoke great heat and pain. These are the first harvests, or the beginnings, of explanations, of the formula of heat, in the form of an indulgence of the understanding. Now that we have this initial harvest, the formula or true definition of heat will naturally follow (the heat mentioned here is related to the universe, not just to people), which can be explained in a few words. It is expressed as follows: Heat is the motion of an expanding, restrained, smaller molecule acting upon a body in its struggle.But there are two embellishments here. Regarding the so-called expansion, it should be modified as follows: at the same time as expanding to all directions, ②it has an upward tendency. ③There is also about the struggle in the molecules, which should also be modified as follows: This is not lazy, but hasty and violent. ①Fuller pointed out that note that "French" and "Definition" are equated here. - translator ②Fuller pointed out that this means that the expansion is in all directions and is circular. - translator ③Refer to the note under the second point of difference in this article. - translator It's the same thing when it comes to movement.Instructions in this respect may also be expressed as follows: If you can induce in any natural body a distending or expanding motion, and restrain this motion back upon itself, so that the dilation cannot proceed in balance , but only one part can get the way and the other part is resisted, then you will definitely generate heat.As for whether the object belongs to the four elements or is subject to the influence of celestial bodies; ① is it luminous or non-luminous; is it thin or thick; ; whether it tends to decompose or to remain in its original state; whether it is animal or vegetable or mineral, whether water or oil or air, or any other substance capable of feeling the above-mentioned motions;—these need not be considered.When it comes to feeling hot, it's the same thing, but it has to be considered in relation to the senses.Now, let's move on to some further help. ②①See the first example and notes in Article 18 of Volume Two. - translator ②Iris makes some general comments on Bacon's inquiry into the mode of heat: 1. Most of them did nothing.This is arguably a natural consequence of this method of inquiry. 2. Confusing heat with the results of some chemical actions (for example, items 22-27 in Article 1 of Volume 2, and items 27-32 in Article 12). 3. All objects tend to acquire the temperature of the objects around them, and the difference in the sense of touch whether one object is hotter or cooler than another is not due to the fact that the object is hotter or cooler, but because each transmits its own temperature. The sensitivity to temperature varies. Bacon's total ignorance of this principle was a still greater source of confusion. On account of this he often taught that bodies of a certain kind are cool in their own nature, bodies of another kind are hot, and so on.It is also said that all liquids are cold (for example, items 1 and 3 in Article 1 of Volume 2, and items 14 to 19 in Article 12).But in fact, if you experiment with a thermometer, you will already see that they are not so.But Bacon didn't try it—one more instance among many of how he had rejected what had been taught him before him. 4. Heat and cold seem to be regarded as separate rather than interrelated properties. 5. Adopting some nonsense in astrology that the so-called stars and planets can affect hot and cold