Chapter 6 Chapter 6 The United States, Japan, and Germany

Since Britain entered the capitalist system in 1689, the world situation has changed a lot.The new British system made agricultural economic factors and industry and commerce merged into one, and public and private organizations were also condensed into one, and each was controlled by money.This is an organization of strengths.Thus, in both public and private situations, consciously and unintentionally, in time of peace as well as in time of war, Britain used this advantage over the unreorganized system of her neighbours.First and foremost is France.In the War of the Spanish Succession, John Churchill, the economic mobilization of the Bank of England, defeated the forces of Louis XIV at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 (Chapter 4).Since then, in the 18th century, Britain and France fought each other because of the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years War and the American War of Independence.Under financial pressure, the French Revolution finally broke out.However, the internal situation in France is complicated, and it is not easy to enter the digital management method, which will be discussed later (Chapter Seven).

For a long time, such pressures also spread to colonies and areas that have not yet constituted nation-states.When these places attempted to independently establish nation-states, their leaders usually called for democracy, freedom, liberation, and reform.However, in addition to the personal experience of each person, these slogans and movements can only establish a principle of fair and free exchange of various economic factors in the political system, so the new type of law does not rely on personal relationships and does not bow to social classes. authority, that is, it can be widely implemented.Under the three conditions of comprehensive circulation of funds, recruitment of talents regardless of field, and full use of technical support factors, the scale can only grow bigger and bigger, and the capital will accumulate more and more.Although there are differences in degrees, any "reformation" country cannot completely break away from the above-mentioned technological arrangements that we think of capitalism.If this is not the case, the lower structure of its society will not be able to fully self-govern, let alone grow independently.The revolutions in the Soviet Union and China seem to have broken away from this procedure.However, because the lower levels could not be fixed, we had to use dogmatic imprisonment and police supervision to strengthen control.And its lower end is formed by far-fetched organization, and the pressure from top to bottom can never be relaxed, and its numbers can never be accumulated.It now appears that this method is still nothing more than a system during the transitional period, and its main purpose is to accumulate capital in a wartime posture.If you want to restore a long-lasting system, you still have to apply the above general principles. Although it emphasizes state capital and social capital and has a socialist character, it does not make a new start in terms of organization.These situations will also be listed in the next chapter.

The ancien regime in France, Imperial Russia, and traditional China were difficult to reform because they had a centralized system in the past, and their organization has never been in accordance with the above-mentioned arrangements.Conversely, the less experience a country or society has in the past with centralized power, the more potential it has for numerical management, the easier it is to transform, and it is often possible to enter the capitalist system quickly.The conditions that lead to the free exchange of various internal factors are also inconsistent, and each varies according to the degree of its own historical development.Here are different examples for the US, Japan and Germany:

It seems relatively easy to explain why the United States became a capitalist country.In short, it is nothing more than implementing a system that has been successfully tested in the UK in an open area.Because it lacks the hindrance of established factors, this movement is free from setbacks and rich in resources, so the environment is more conducive to creation. But the development of the facts is not so simple.First, North America is not an exclusive colony of the United Kingdom. In the 17th century, France already owned Canada, and Spain also occupied Florida. New York and the area along the Hudson River were colonized by the Dutch, and in the southwest, there was a Swedish colony. "New Sweden".Second, the 13 states before the independence of the United States did not have a common system. Virginia (Virginia) and Massachusetts (Massa-chusetts) were colonies developed by registered commercial companies, and New York was the spoils of war after the first Anglo-Dutch battle. , the private property of the Duke of York.Pennsylvania (Pennsylvania) and Maryland (Maryland), although also owned by private celebrities, were used to support the persecuted Quakers and Catholics respectively.Georgia was founded by philanthropists in the 18th century to house and rehabilitate people imprisoned in debt to England and the like.In this way, it is not easy for these 13 regions to jointly implement a certain system.

When it comes to resources, the territory of the mainland has yet to be developed, which requires a lot of capital and profits are far away. It is not as good as the West Indies with sugar, New Zealand with aquatic products, and Canada with timber. This is the shortest way for investors.North America also lacked the large quantities of gold and silver found in South America, further reducing the attractiveness of the region. But in the long run, the above conditions will make the future United States of America a pillar of capitalist countries.The so-called capitalist countries certainly need a new type of business regulation, but their essential strength still depends on production, so agriculture, industry and mining are still indispensable.The main point is that the organization of agricultural production can also enable the fair and free exchange of various factors, which is in line with the habits of commercial society.Industrial and mining industries not only focus on precious metals, but first focus on coal and iron, and secondly focus on kerosene.The British colonies in North America developed from these conditions, first laying a solid foundation in the low-level structure, and then flourishing in the future, with twice the result with half the effort.It's just that the use of slaves in the South conflicts with the principle of fair and free exchange. It will eventually be resolved by the Civil War, but this is already a matter of the 19th century.

Initially, the colonization, which was striving for quick profits in a commercial nature, suffered a disastrous failure.The joint-stock company centered on Plymouth merchants hoped to find gold and silver in Maine, neglected agricultural production, and clashed with the Indians. The survivors gave up their colonization and returned home quietly, and the company lost its charter.The London merchants colonized Virginia. Within 3 years, only 450 of the 900 people they sent to the colony survived. Although they recruited shares later, it was fruitless. In 1624, the company's charter was also declared invalid.

In the future, Britain succeeded in colonizing North America, and various places were able to enter the capitalist system according to the situation. There are several conditions as the background: one is religious tolerance.At that time, the handling of religion in the British colonies was not absolute freedom, and there were sporadic exclusions of non-local orthodox heresies in some places.But since there is a lack of a national church to preside over it, various beliefs have a chance to gain a foothold.At that time, people worshiped in the way they were used to, and educated their children with the dogma they believed in, which was in line with the purpose of everyone's life.The freedom of the New World made them feel at home, and the ties of parishioners in various villages and towns increased the strength of local self-government and the individual character of the place, all of which were intertwined with individualism and democratic habits.These factors contribute to the development of capitalism.Second, there is great upward social mobility in society.When North America first opened up, the supply of labor was in short supply. It was estimated that before the independence of the United States, half of the immigrants entered the country as "indentured laborers".During this period, the cost of crossing the Atlantic Ocean is about 6 pounds to 10 pounds per person, which is a lot of money and few people can afford it.The voyage lasts from 10 to 12 weeks, and the chances of dying of illness on the way are extremely high.Under special circumstances, sometimes half to 90% of the passengers have no chance to see land again once they enter the cabin.Generally, there are laborers, men and women, who risk their own lives across the ocean. After arriving in America, the captain sells his or her contract to others.After such a hard struggle, once this kind of indentured slave laborer is released, his diligence is evident.And North America also gave them the opportunity of "heroes are not afraid of low birth", some became famous lawyers, and some became big landlords.Of the 61 people who signed the Declaration of Independence, two were originally indentured laborers.The composition of apprentices is also similar to that of contract labor. Generally, the host provides board and lodging, and apprentices serve for 7 years without value.Children from poor families can learn how to make a living through this.Three of them became famous in the future and signed the Declaration of Independence.One of the three is Franklin, whose words and deeds have been regarded by Weber and Sombart as an example of capitalism (see Chapter 5 for details).

The ease of obtaining land ownership can be counted as the third condition.The colonies in North America originally had no definite land policy.In non-commercial colonies everywhere, the lords generally transfer the entire area to others in a feudal manner.The principle is that all land shall not be bought or sold, and the recipients shall pay "quitrent", and inheritance shall be arranged through "primogeniture" so that the land will not be divided.Secondly, it is restricted by the "genetic order" (entail), so that the property will not fall into the hands of Lao Zhi's side descendants, causing the original upper-level lords to lose control.In short, I still want to maintain the static form of society.North Carolina's constitution, drafted by Locke, included the titles of nobility for some lords.Maryland's charter, which also empowered lords to issue titles.But these arrangements have no effect.The dynamics of American society do not conform to the feudal system.The disobedience of the young of the next generation, and the unwillingness of the newcomers to accommodate the original settlers, made it impossible to preserve the tradition.Difficulties in collecting rental fees.Generally, land is easy to obtain. When the contract labor contract expires, the owner also has a regulation to grant 50 acres (about 300 acres) of land, which was called "headright" by people at the time.Although the combination of land ownership spanning more than a thousand miles over the past 100 years is bound to miss everything, we might as well follow the theory of an expert, who said:

〖We can draw fairly definite conclusions from the most important places in this system.One of the most important factors was that it was relatively easy and cost-effective for immigrants to acquire land.We can even say that the land is equal to giving away for nothing.At a minimum, a farmer can acquire enough land for a small fee to support himself.Moreover, there is still newly reclaimed frontier land, and the judicial power has not yet been established. He can at least occupy it without authorization to give himself a start, and wait until the law catches up and mentions ownership.In many cases, he will not need to pay for it even if he acquires ownership in the future.This is very different from Western Europe, where the population is dense, land is expensive, and ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few people.Over there, the landlord always has to extract a large amount of rent or other fees and services from the tenant farmers. 〗

Easy access to land or unclear sovereignty does not constitute capitalism.The above situation is conducive to the development of capitalism in the future, because most immigrants use all their labor to cultivate the land, and there is a surplus, which is conducive to the accumulation of initial capital, and when the capital is completed, it is not restricted by the feudal system. European immigrants continue to import, which is conducive to the development of capitalism. Even if the "nobles" who owned land in the Americas were not self-made, they were also scheming planners and full of competitiveness.Take Robert Carter of Virginia: he owned 300,000 acres in the early 18th century. "Carter experimented differently. When tobacco was unprofitable, he switched to corn, especially wheat, but also hemp, flax, and even cotton. When he found slave labor too costly, he turned to hired labor and tenant farmers. He did not Satisfied with the income from agriculture, he bought and sold wheat in large quantities. He also opened his own mill, sold flour, and baked bread himself, to a commercial extent. He manufactured textiles on the farm, invested in a textile factory in Baltimore, and owned Baltimore The shares in the iron factory and the operation of a salt factory for several years have made a lot of profit.” There is also a relatively conservative area in Virginia, the northern part of New York State, where it is more common for landlords to operate both commercial and legal businesses.Livingston (Robert Livingston), a Scot, grew up in the Netherlands, came to America at the age of 19, and worked as a secretary in the town of Albany (Albany) in 1674 (20 years old).He used this status to oppose marriage, traded with the Indians, and owned 160,000 acres of land along the Hudson River.Therefore, "the large landowners in New York pay less attention to agriculture and are more interested in land investment."

Agriculture in the North American colonies soon established specialties among various regions due to the relationship of commercial organizations.The cost of water transportation is low, and the Navigation Act (Chapter 4) also strengthens the transportation relationship between the colony and the home country, which has the effect of promoting the emergence of professional agricultural products.The most important product in the southern colonies is tobacco. Its production has led to the widespread development of large-scale farms, and began to annex the industries of small yeoman farmers (however, small yeoman farmers who lost their land can still develop to the hinterland), and generally use white indentured labor and black slave labor .The second is rice, which is not planted according to the intensive farming method in China, but is generally planted in swampy areas (some areas are still like this today, but the seeds have been sown by airplanes).When the profit is high, 40% of the cost can be obtained, but many slaves died in the swamp.The third is indigo, which is still a necessity in the textile industry until the advent of chemical dyes. All of the above are not available in Britain, and they are also very popular in Britain.Their production required large-scale farms and labor, which expanded slavery in the South and intensified imports from Africa.Cotton became the economic lifeline of the South before the Civil War. However, before the technology of separating cottonseeds was invented, there was no large-scale production, and it did not emerge until after the Revolutionary War. The colonies in the central part were dominated by Pennsylvania, and most of them were small farmers, who mainly produced food.It is generally said that until the outbreak of the War of Independence, Pennsylvania's grain production could supply the needs of the entire North American colony.Grinding pits and sawmills are also located throughout the central part.Because of the lack of other specialties in this area, most of them are engaged in small-scale manufacturing.At first, they started from repairing and repairing furniture and agricultural equipment, and gradually manufactured wood, looms, nails, rakes, chains, etc. Women were engaged in weaving, and all hemp, linen and woolen products were produced in the form of family industry. In the Northeast known as "New England", corn is the main agricultural product, and wheat and oatmeal only occupy an auxiliary position.Therefore, he concentrated on the export of forest timber. He was good at shipbuilding and fishing, and was also famous for wine making.Albany in New York is the center of trade with the Indians, producing furs. The arrangement of the British colonies in North America differed greatly from the organization of the colonies of France and Spain from the beginning.The latter two are appointed governors by the king and have absolute authority overseas.British colonies were managed by lords, colonial companies, and governors sent by the king according to the granting of charters.Although the lands of the former two tend towards the latter, becoming "royal provinces" governed by a governor, each colony has a state assembly elected by local popular opinion, with general suffrage Property All Amount Restrictions.On the one hand, this fostered the spirit of democracy and self-government, and on the other hand, it also supported the development of capitalism, because such a system gave private property a special weight in determining public affairs. After William and Mary entered the United Kingdom, they reorganized the colonies. In 1696, the Office of Commerce and Overseas Farms was established, supervised by Locke (Chapter Five).Parliament passed bills establishing post offices in the North American colonies, opening maritime courts, and granting subsidies to certain items produced in the colonies.Bills passed by the Colonial State Assembly were sent to the Privy Council for review, and the Farm Office reviewed and signed the bill first, and the Privy Council had the right to veto.However, not many cases were rejected. In the future, the conflict between the home country and the colonies will not be due to the failure of the bill, but because the former will impose its own will on the latter. In the first half of the 18th century, the North American colonies enjoyed economic prosperity.At this time, the international trade in the Atlantic Ocean, through the French West Indies, formed a triangular exchange method.Cane sugar, molasses, and fruits produced in the West Indies sold well in Europe and the United States, and the North American colonies exported flour, fish, livestock, and timber to them.The colonies of New England dumped sugar cane wine (rum) from syrup to Europe, including Britain.In addition, North America still imported tobacco, rice, indigo, wood, fur, crude iron, fish oil, etc. into Britain in exchange for textiles and various ironware. In 1733, the British Parliament passed a bill imposing heavy tariffs on sugar and syrup imported from the French colonies to the British colonies.This kind of expropriation involved not only sugar and wine, but also indirectly involved the entire Atlantic trade. As a result, the law failed, the captains forged bills of lading, and the customs officials turned a blind eye.Britain also encouraged the colonies to manufacture pig iron, but prohibited steelmaking, and this prohibition was also written down.The two sides insisted so that the United States finally declared its independence from the British economic rule. The population of the North American colonies increased more than 8 times in 70 years from 300,000 in 1700 to 2.5 million in 1770.Many of these two to three million people are concentrated in cities.On the eve of the Revolutionary War, Philadelphia had 40,000 people, the second largest city in the British Empire after London.There are 20,000 in Boston, maybe 30,000 in New York, 12,000 in Newport and 10,000 in Charleston.The above can be counted as first-class cities.In addition, there are smaller second-tier cities, and third-tier cities with inland river transportation hubs.These towns formed a great network, not only places where agricultural products were handled, but also centers of shipbuilding, mills, ironworks, and other manufacturing.Moreover, the municipal administration of these colonial cities was not supervised by officials, and most of them were maintained by automatic organizations of gentry and merchants.For example, the establishment of sidewalks on both sides of the street, the placement of gutters, the purchase of fire-fighting equipment, and the installation of street lights are all resolved by the citizens.Even before the police were hired, all men of age were obliged to take turns, patrol during the day, and watch at night, or else a substitute would be hired, or a fine would be imposed.Therefore, the self-government of cities in the United States does not need to be granted privileges by feudal lords, but is heavily influenced by private capital from the very beginning, so the country is also prone to possess a capitalist character. There are hotel-type inns (tavern) in the city, which are not only places where businessmen and merchants meet, but also where lawyers come and go.Legal notices, election results, and regular carriage schedules are all posted in these places.At first, the American colonies were skeptical of lawyers, but they had to deal with commercial contracts, shipping documents and property certificates. In the late 18th century, many law students in England returned to the United States, and with the establishment of the Bar Association, this prejudice was gradually eliminated. It was not until the Revolutionary War that the status of lawyers in society was consolidated. A missing condition.When urban life gradually unfolded, in addition to lawyers, many other industries also relied on merchants for their livelihoods, such as shopkeepers, craftsmen, mechanics, laborers, shippers, stack workers, sailors, etc.An American historian writes: "Commerce has been united with agriculture since the beginning of the colonies." Another scholar uses only slightly different words."Commerce and shipping moved the wheels of society's welfare," he said. In the early 18th century, states and regions showed different characteristics, but also showed some commonalities.The special products of each region are more closely aligned with the interests of the West Indies and Europe's ocean trade.It was also in the early 18th century that newspapers appeared. By the eve of the outbreak of the War of Independence, there were 32 periodicals in North America.The mail between the colonies was undertaken by the private sector in the late 17th century, and was accepted by the British government in the early 18th century.After Franklin hosted, the exchange of news between Philadelphia and Boston was shortened from 3 weeks to 6 days.The early postal letters were mostly used for business, rarely for private household use. The establishment of a colony requires the protection of the mother country's armaments.Britain's mercantile policy, especially the publication of the Navigation Act, benefited the colonies a lot, and the shipbuilding industry in North America developed by leaps and bounds.However, after more than 100 years of organization and growth, the conflict of interests between the two parties has been exposed and sharpened.We must not forget that Britain also fully embarked on the road of capitalism after the Glorious Revolution. Of course, the 18th-century parliament focused on the interests of the capitalists in the mother country. From their perspective, the function of the colony was nothing more than providing a market for agricultural products, industrial raw materials, and British manufactured goods, and it did not need to be an independent economic unit. This disregard for the hopes and needs of the colonial peoples can be seen in the financial and monetary policy.During the growth process of North America, a more tolerant credit system and monetary policy were highly expected.For ordinary farmers, when inflation continues, it is easier to repay debts than to borrow money, and it is not difficult for the colonial government to recover the government bonds or credit notes issued by itself when the tax amount increases.But without a unified organization, chaos is inevitable.And Rhode Island is only 1,200 square miles, bordered by neighboring states on three sides and facing the sea on one side, so there is no way to expand, and the banknotes or bills issued by the states cannot be used to pay British merchants, so the imports in the seaport Businessmen and wholesalers from all over the country have asked the parliament for mediation.The rulers of the mother country always obeyed their wishes, and issued notes of credit to the colonial government, which were overruled by the governor or privy council.At this time, the trade between the colonies and the home country often exceeded, and Britain neither minted currency in North America, nor allowed British currency to be exported.The thirteen American states did not produce gold and silver, and the colonies were powerless, and the mother country did not allow the import of precious metals to mint currency.Therefore, except for a batch of so-called "pine tree money" illegally minted in Massachusetts, only the currency minted by Spain in Mexico, and part of the currency was earned by trading with the West Indies.The colonies again increased the value of the Spanish currency in proportion to that of the British currency, but the English merchants also increased the price of their goods, so that the purchasing power of the Spanish currency remained the same as before.In addition, merchants in the colonies had to use commodities such as tobacco as currency, and often suffered various losses in transactions. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) determined the path of American independence.The war arose out of two major conflicts.One is that Prussia and Austria compete for leadership in Germany, and the other is that Britain and France compete for overseas colonies.The British strategy was to support Frederick the Great of Prussia with subsidies, allowing him to deal with enemies on the European continent, while the British focused on overseas warfare. The war ended in 1763. At the Paris Peace Conference, Britain acquired Canada, Spain also ceded Florida, and France's rights in the middle of North America, which today the United States calls "Middle West" (Middle West), also belonged to Britain.Although there was support from the army of the mother country during the war, the North American colonies also borne a lot of sacrifices.After the war, Britain's territorial expansion more than doubled, and how to defend this huge empire became a contentious issue.The British side believed that since the armament was set up for the colonies, the thirteen states should also accept its financial burden. Therefore, stamp duty, sugar tax, import tax on lead and pigments, and tea were handed over to the East India Company for monopoly and customs supervision. The colonies; all kinds of laws come one after another, the purpose of which is to raise soldiers for the colonies.When America declared independence in 1776, it adopted a historical slogan: according to the British tradition, the king could not unilaterally order tax collection without taxpayers participating in the consultation. There is more to it than that.At the end of the Seven Years' War, the British decreed that all the land west of the Al-leghenies belonged to the king, and the colonies were not allowed to touch it.The disposal sparked a huge backlash in North America.The growth and prosperity of the colony depended largely on westward expansion, often in waves.A pioneer with bare hands, or only a cow and a horse, led his family to the wilderness. The fields he opened up could not be legally owned, but as soon as his land was organized, he gave it to others and continued to move forward .The second immigrant paid only a small price, but he built roads, built bridges, added glass windows to wooden houses, and added brick chimneys, and then he also sold the real estate to the latecomers. people".Soon this second person also became an entrepreneur with capital. In 1726, Pennsylvania had no sovereignty and the number of occupying land reached 100,000.This kind of "primitive capital accumulation" will stimulate the development of shops and towns in the rear, and even more so, the capitals, seaports and ships in the rear.For the increase of population, the increase of production, and the improvement of living standards must be beneficial to all kinds of supply and service enterprises, and by analogy, they must also spread to the east and the Atlantic coast.Therefore, George III's attempt to control the land in the Midwest was tantamount to hindering a developing economic movement, offending not only the immigrants who opened up wasteland, but all the people in the colonies. During this initial westward movement, several ancestors of future US presidents were involved.Before the Seven Years' War, Jefferson's father, Peter, and Washington's elder brother, both participated in the business of developing land companies to the Midwest.At the age of 22, Washington was appointed as a lieutenant colonel of the militia and participated in military operations against the French army in the Midwest.This further shows that the westward expansion of the colony has the power of its mass movement, and it is also closely related to the War of Independence. American independence can be seen as a phenomenon of the development of civil rights, but also as a product of the process of capitalist expansion.The organization of the American colonies has been in tune with the spirit of capitalism from the very beginning.Except that New York's real estate still retains a certain feudal character, and the slavery system in the South is still at odds with the general system, all kinds of things in the lower institutions of the thirteen states have been able to be exchanged fairly and freely.When the property rights are fixed, the structure of ownership and employment becomes a big net, and the economic system becomes bigger and bigger.In hindsight, it is only a matter of time before it becomes independent from Britain, because such a large economic organization cannot be restrained by a small organization for a long time, sacrificing the rationality of its development, and accommodating the interests of the latter.What's more, there is still a distance between the two.If liberty and civil rights were the reasons for America's declaration of independence, the ends supported by those reasons were the economic system of the United States of America.How would you describe this economic system?There is no more appropriate word in the current vocabulary than "capitalism". And with the birth of the United States, capitalism took a step forward in world history.As mentioned in the previous chapters of this book, the whole city of Venice is on an island, and it is easy to enter the capitalist system.The proportion of population and commerce in Dutch cities is far higher than that of rural society, and it has absorbed a large amount of various industrial and commercial technologies and commercial capital, so it became a capitalist country at the time of independence.Britain entered the capitalist system before and after the Glorious Revolution, and the environment needed to merge the country's agricultural economy and commercial economy into one unit.For the United States to become a capitalist country, it has the character of capitalism first, and then constitutes a country.Her agriculture has long been coordinated with industry and commerce, and the development of the economy is also very close to the "labor force theory of value" (all value is produced by labor, see Chapter 5 for details).When it was first established, there was also a tendency to form a nation-state in all aspects.But when the revolution succeeded, although 3/4 of the white population belonged to the descendants of England, Scotland, and Ireland, there were already nearly 800,000 people who were descendants of Germany, Holland, Sweden, and France, and another 700,000 blacks.In the next two centuries, it accepted immigrants from different countries, recruited Chinese laborers, and finally became a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural (multi-culture and multi-nationality) country. But the declaration of independence on July 4, 1776, did not immediately create the future of the United States. The "Articles of Confederation" (Articles of Confederation) in 1781 only established a legislative assembly without executive agencies and judicial organizations. The assembly could not levy taxes. The expenses of the Confederation depended entirely on donations from the states, and the Confederate army also relied on the supplies of the states. personnel and supplies.The power to issue currency is also in the hands of the states.All these problems were not amended until the federal constitution in 1789. However, whether the supreme sovereignty of this country is in the federation (each state is like a province) or each state (if so, the federation is roughly like today's United Nations), there is still a lack of general decision.The ambiguity led to the 1832 South Carolina nullification.The protection tariff policy increased by the federal government is beneficial to the industrial manufacturing states, not conducive to the states that mainly export agricultural products to purchase finished products.South Carolina believed that undertaking this kind of tariff would harm the interests of the people and was contrary to its own purpose of joining the Federation, so it declared that this tariff law was invalid in the state, so that the federal government was ready to enforce it, almost using force.In the end, a compromise was settled, and the southern state revoked the denial bill, and the federal government also made concessions to reduce tariffs.However, the issue of supreme sovereignty remains unresolved.There are still plenty of advocates for "state rights." On the eve of the Civil War in 1861, the southern states announced their secession, that is, they insisted that the Federation be a voluntary organization, and each state had the right to stay if they agreed, and leave if they disagreed.After more than four years of civil war, the Federation was affirmed as an indivisible organization. When the states formed the Federation, they had already handed over part of their supreme sovereignty to the federal government. The Civil War is undoubtedly a major watershed in American history.Slavery is not only a humanitarian and religious issue, but also a social and economic issue. The Federal Constitution of 1789 neither gave slaves the right to vote, but also counted their numbers as three-fifths when electing representatives of the House of Representatives. political power over ordinary citizens.It was already unreasonable when the Federation was first established.When the Midwest continued to be opened up as states, the southern states allowed slavery, while the northern states only had free labor. The distance between the two parties was even greater, and this issue was finally resorted to by force. Afterwards, all slaves were liberated, but they still did not leave the capitalist system. Low-level institutions The principle that all things should be able to be exchanged equally and freely. Today, many authors comment on the United States, do not focus on the special background of the United States' history, or praise too much, or criticize too harshly. The so-called extremists emphasize that the freedom of American society seems to be the result of shrewd design and generally high public morals. There are also some people in the United States and abroad who advocate that other countries should also promote American-style freedom.In fact, American law is largely based on the British tradition.Before the establishment of customary law, each region made its own laws, that is, tribal laws.Customary law accepted its general principles, accumulated a large number of cases in the trial, and then infiltrated the principle of equity (see Chapter 4), making economic factors between regions, and capital and wealth between commerce and agriculture , can be exchanged fairly and freely.After the establishment of the North American colony, the British government also let the states make their own legislation, as long as the content does not completely conflict with the tradition, that is, the differences are not pursued.The Commonwealth of the United States came about 200 years after the colonies had begun.After the Revolutionary War, the states still used the British court tradition as the basis of justice, but generally limited the scope of use of established precedents to cases tried before July 4, 1776.As a result, certain principles of common law may not apply in the UK in the future.For example, the antitrust legislation in the United States in 1890 is a tradition that dates back several centuries, and it reached Britain in the 16th and 17th centuries, and even went farther than Magna Carta.Therefore, it is believed that any "combination in restraint of trade" (combination in restraint of trade) violates the spirit of customary law and the tradition of the United Kingdom and the United States, and can be banned by legislation. This spirit of the rule of law is indeed admirable, but it must also be supported by historical and geographical advantages.In short, the freedom of the United States in the future is due to the fact that hundreds of years ago, the societies of maritime countries were usually less threatened by external military forces, but deeply influenced by commerce. Under the competitive system, the potential forces that hinder free competition have been eradicated as far as possible in the actions of judicial legislation. The United States is not uniquely endowed with unimpeded capitalism.The denial of the Federal Act shows that administrative problems are still inevitable, and the Civil War made the national elites devote themselves to the battlefield and the wilderness (many southerners participated in the war, not to preserve slavery, but to resist coercion).Other disputes, such as those involving the Shay's Rebellion, the Whiskey Rebel-lion, the banning of trusts, the organization of trade unions, the handling of currency and banks, and agreements on cross-state commerce, etc., were also achieved through hard work. foundation of capitalism.It's just that North America is relatively free in space, and the time development is appropriate, such as the proliferation of population and the development of science and technology.Another example is the "Homestead Act" (Homestead Act) in 1862, allowing ordinary people to buy land after 5 years of farming on public land, each with 160 acres, at a low price.The future efficiency of American capitalist society will depend on similar factors in lower institutions.The freedom of movement of Americans today also depends on the development of the economy. There is a high degree of division of labor in various businesses, and individuals have many opportunities to choose. This cannot be imitated by other countries and societies. The so-called excessive critics are a group of left-wing writers, regardless of the favorable conditions and specialties of the Americas, who frequently abuse them because they do not meet their ideal conditions.Adam Smith once pointed out that whenever a new type of economic institution competes with a backward economic institution, the former must have a tendency to use its superior organizational conditions to overpower the latter.This is the nature of the encroachments upon the Indians by the white race when they colonized them.When the United States was developing outwards in the late 19th century and early 2000s, certain policies were implemented in an imperialist style.However, in the history of the United States of America, this tendency and style have never become a fixed character.而且美国因其本身的历史经验，对提倡人权、扶助弱者、保持国际道义，较世界史上任何国家并不逊色。本书之宗旨不在歌颂与谴责，而在说明资本主义可以脱离意识形态的解释，它虽让私人财产权在公众事业中占重要地位，仍可能在开明的私利观条件下，于技术上代表一种紧凑的组织与运动。从这种观点看来，美国之取缔托拉斯、限制使用童工、推行累进税制、提倡义务教育、厘定每周40小时之工作制、规定最低工资、设置失业救济社会福利和养老金等等措施，其后面的推动力量，仍为资本主义。美国之参与第一次及第二次世界大战，虽左翼作家也无法否定其行动带着正义感，后面支持的力量，也是资本主义。也就是说资本主义不一定和社会主义、世界主义或人道主义对抗，如果给予适当的调整，它所代表的开明的私利观可以在多方面适应时代的需要。 日本给外界的观感在最近几十年曾经数度变化。抗战之前，我们对日本有一种陈规旧套的看法：日本人不外“短小精悍，长于模仿，勇于进取”。这种偏见当然引起对方反感。及至第二次世界大战结束，日本的地位一落千丈，即日本人也批评他们自己只注重行动，不顾及思考，有如袭击珍珠港，只抱着一个“长期不至战败”的观念，谈不上久远的计划，于是也责备自己眼光短浅。失去自信心之余，1945年以降，在重要之节日，扶桑三岛的城市里很少张扬国旗。民意测验显示，一般年轻人爱慕瑞士及美国。这情况在最近10多年来有激剧的改变。虽说国家主义的重新抬头不失为恢复自信心的一种象征，可是重要行政长官致祭于靖国神社，修改教科书，领袖人物公开谈话提及日本人种优于美国人种，不免使外间对日本战前记忆犹新的人们闻之心悸。 对历史题材重新检讨，可以改正观感，澄清视听，提供一个比较客观而实际的看法。 第一，我们应当承认日本人有他们独特的精神，不能用“长于模仿”四字代之。研究日本的专家指出，史前的日本民族即已表现很多独特的性格，如好洁成癖，宗教信仰缺乏罪咎观念，无意对创世作猜测或崇拜一个滋生万物之神，注重自然现象，甚至敬畏出类拔萃的山川鸟兽。这种种专注于刻下环境之事物，有意受自然力量之感召（亦即在日常生活之中尽量接受自然法则［law of nature］），不沉湎于抽象观念的习惯，不可能与日本人经常在技术工作中表现精研独到的能力及各人行动易于协调没有关系。第二，日本因为受外界的军事威胁少，无需中国型的中央集权及庞大无比的官僚组织，而能让封建制度绵延至19世纪后期。一般观念认为几封建必落后。殊不知封建体制之内，最有效之政府为地方政府。经过长期人文演进之后（如交通通信进步、印刷术广泛推行、识字率增高），日本下层结构之组织日趋绵密紧凑，私人事业中渗入公众道德的精神，这种潜在的力量，与中国官僚主义之注重外表冠冕堂皇，完全相反。第三，吸收外界之专长，为所有民族国家应有之共通性格。中国曾不断地吸收外界宗教思想、建筑设计、食物乐器、战法工具，而最近一个世纪尚及于法律政府、科学技术、服饰言语。即欧美各国何尝不如此。以此类推，我们无法断言模仿是日本人独有之专长。只因日本为重洋遮隔，吸收外界文物时有突然性、有全面性、有时发展而为举国一致的运动，容易被指责而已。 日本在明治维新之后，整个国家与社会进入资本主义体制。其快速的成功，在东亚地区产生了一种组织上及实力上高度的不平衡，这种不平衡终于导致太平洋战争。凡被波及之国家，连日本在内，都已付出相当代价。历史的教训，使我们觉得自负种族优越或无端予人以自卑感，同有导致战祸的危险。而且从日本进入资本主义体制的史实看来，上段所述的三种发展，同有对这运动赋予有利条件的趋势。确实能掌握此种有利的条件而将之发扬光大，是日本人民之成就。但这不足以支持人种优越说。我们与其赞扬日本人生理上之特长，不如归功于日本之地理环境。在检讨日本之进入资本主义体制时，本书采取如是立场。 日本进入资本主义体制，可以1868年作分水岭。可是形成现代资本主义的因素已在几百年前产生。日本三井财系的原始组织，开始于17世纪初期，事在中国明朝末年，最初以酿酒起家，于德川时代开始“吴服店”（绸缎铺），1680年间开始经营银行业，早于英伦银行之成立（1694）约10年。兹后专替幕府担任出纳汇款事务，维新时参加倒幕运动，放贷于帝国之新政府，与三菱、住友、安田同为“财阀”中的台柱。如果我们认为资本主义使私人资本在公众事业中占有特殊比重，则日本财阀在明治维新前后已将这种特性充分发挥；而且源远流长，不待外间示范，早已在历史上长期立足。如果我们认为资本主义是一种组织和一种运动，则日本财团如三井者不能说没有在幕后产生牵制的作用，而且维新志士中的佼佼者，如伊藤博文和井上馨，同出于长州藩，日后被指责代表三井利益。如此说来，要是资本主义可以“萌芽”，则理想上培植嫩苗之暖房不在西欧，尤其不可能在官僚主义充塞的中国，而只有在“锁国”江户时代的日本，才算最为适切。 日本的封建时代，经过三个阶段：镰仓时代、室町时代和江户时代。这三个段落之间也各有过渡时期，每一段落由一家系继承“征夷大将军”的名号。其所辖“幕府”，为实际中央政府。幕府之组织，在各世纪中大同小异，只是这三个阶段日本的社会却有大距离之差别。每一阶段历时约两个半世纪，有似中国之朝代。此时日本天皇驻跸于京都，不仅毫无实权，而且与其公卿同样生活艰苦。一位现代学者曾指出：“天皇实在是一个贫弱的小大名。”（大名的意义下详。）中国明朝接受室町幕府进贡时，即称其将军足利义满为“日本国王”。后来万历帝拟与丰臣秀吉言和时，也准备封之为“日本国王”（可是秀吉只称“关白”，有摄政之意，而未就将军职），因其为实际的政治首脑。 江户即今日之东京，其幕府创始人及第一任将军为德川家康。他继织田信长及丰臣秀吉之后，以武力统一日本，于1603年任征夷大将军之职，及至明治维新，第15任将军庆喜“大政奉还”，德川一家统治日本达265年。 德川氏之封建组织以幕府直接掌握日本中心地带，占全国约1／5的地区，是为“天领”，包括所有重要城市如江户、京都、大贩、长崎。其他地区，划分为“藩”，配给封建诸侯，其爵禄以境内产米计，凡10000石以上者称为“大名”，最大之大名前田氏，领地逾100万石。江户幕府初创时，共有大名295人，（以后减至265），各大名之职位世袭。幕府在其能力所能及的范围内，可以削藩、新增大名、增减领地，也可以命令大名迁徙，但是这种情形只及于中枢之藩。德川家康统一全国时，有一部分大名早已存在，他们迫于环境，称臣纳贡，但是意态犹离，这些持观望态度之藩主，被认为有敌视态度，多配于边区远处。日后倒幕运动展开时，出力最多之藩为长州、萨摩、肥前、土佐，均在西南。 江户幕府对日本历史最大的贡献，为其保持长期和平。自1636年施行“锁国政策”后，日本人不许航海外渡，在海外之日本人不许回国，违者判死刑。外来船只仅限中国及荷兰籍（日本此时禁基督教，荷兰人承允不作传教工作），交易限于长崎，日人在港内筑有人造岛屿，称为“出岛”，荷兰人只许居留岛上。葡萄牙人曾两次派员与幕府交涉，希望稍宽成命，但是使节团61人随即被拘禁斩首，只有少数人被遣返报告经过。 幕府成立之后，各藩不得擅自筑城。自1635年实行所谓“参勤交代”。所有藩主都要亲至江户，参加将军近旁的各种仪节，并且在名义上担任防卫工作。基本上各大名分为两批，每年轮流驻扎于江户，并自备府寓，凡随从人员、经行道路、器具装备，都有极详细的规定，而且期满藩主回藩，其家属仍留江户，所以有些历史家指之为一种人质制度。此外也有一批大名，被派半年轮值，而远处之藩主稍有例外，轮值较稀。以经济方面而言，参勤交代制在日后之东京造成大规模的消费市场，使财富集中，刺激金融经济的发展。加以幕府规定各藩剩余之谷米，只许在江户及大皈发卖，更促成都市之繁荣。 江户政权既为封建制，则诸藩财政上自给自足，各大名除有不定期及不定量之“献金”外，不向幕府缴纳赋税，其内部之开支亦由诸藩自理。幕府军事行动或大兴土木时，诸藩供应人员，并且担任后勤。平时则各藩自理其境内治安，自理其诉讼事件。德川幕府只颁布一般法治之原则，如“武家诸法度”，各藩各自颁行“家法”，大概仿效江户之饬令，法律带有儒家伦理之气息，如奖励向学，严禁骄奢淫佚等等。 “幕藩之关系”至今未有定论。理论上有高度的中央集权，而事实上有相当程度的地方分权。世界史中无相似事例能与之相互印证。又如堵藩内部之管理，亦非全国一律。大凡封建（feudalism）则有“次层封建”（subinfeudation），大名之下，各陪臣（real vassal）本应层层节制，并且各有采邑（fi6f，日人称为“知行”），土地也不能买卖，封建才与庄园制度（manorialsystem）互为表里。日本封建制度初创立时，大体也都保持这种形态。武士称“侍”（中国字之“侍”，读音samurai，日本人也企图将之与“士农工商”之“士”等量齐观），传统习惯，其髡发与旁人不同，身带二刀，长刀战斗，短刀准备战败自裁，上自将军属下之大名及“大老”（正副首相）、“年寄”（高级顾问）、各种“奉行”（特派经理人员），下至“御家人”（下士官）同属于待，不得与一般平民通婚，对一般平民有无限权威，可以“斩舍御免”（kirisute gomun，对抗命之平民可以宰割，虽杀人无罪），也都配有土地。 但随着时代的变迁，这种一成不变的制度难于维持。即在德川氏统一全国之前，封建制实已变质，逐渐带有官僚组织成分。江户幕府又将各大名移植。各大名率领所辖陪臣履新，所在之藩常有前代遗留之侍，因之武士阶级人员重叠，造成藩内侍之成员与全人口的比例高低不等。有如隆摩及土佐，其侍之人数特高。是以经理上也无法采取同一方式，而只能迁就于各地之习惯法。 17世纪的趋向，则是各大名将藩内陪臣之采邑废除，将他们调至藩主之守城，付以俸米，派以流动之任务。兹后迄1800年，90％之藩已将下属全部采邑废除。然则这也并不是全面现代化，推演而成一个流动性的社会。不少中古以来的武士阶级以“乡士”身份出现，他们既是大地主，也是地方上的特殊威权，可能通过继承，亘世纪地掌握着乡村中政治经济的力量。 尤其值得注意的是，日本土地税与中国税制迥然不同。幕府及大名均不向全民直接课税，其税额是集体地课予每一村庄，因之地方威权之力量不可忽视。日本土地税额之高，为历史家经常提及。正规之土地税（“年贡”）通常为收成之40％至50％（“四公六民”或“五公五民”），又有其他附加及杂税（“口米”、“欠米”、“小物成”、“助乡役”），而且德川中期有土地主权集中之形势，多数小自耕农已沦为佃农，向地主纳租。种田人如何能直接地、间接地承当如此繁重的负担？ 实际情形可能与上面粗浅的描绘稍有出入。17世纪中，日本全国耕地增加约80％，稻米生产自1800万石（每石通常为一人一年之消费量，较中国之石为大）增至2500万石，也约近40％。可是一般税额的增高并未照此比例。1700年之后，土地定期测量即未再举行。农业技术却日日增进。只是一般农民生活之艰难痛苦似已无可复加，加以天灾饥谨在德川时代经常有之，农民暴动（“百姓一揆”）在此时期曾前后发生1600起。日本全国人口，例如1721年，近3000万。以后近一个半世纪，即迄明治维新前夕，仍在3200万左右。有些学者认为赋税与地租多重过取，下层人民生计艰难与此人口总数之消长有关。是以日本进入资本主义体制的过程，一般人民曾付出极大代价。 有了上述背景，我们可以想象明治维新前，商业资本之累积及商业组织之展开，事出必然。德川幕府已经制造了一个庞大的消费市场，又安排了一个庞大的生产力量。其政治与社会之体制又在极紧凑的组织之中留下可资活动之处，使物资在两者之间的交纳不仅合理化，而且带着强迫性。留下来的问题不外分配，亦即收集、交换与运输。其中要通过幕府之直辖地区，又事关200多个表面上合作，实际上竞争的地方单位，也只能由商人出面经手。其经手的组织成立后，必然会在内部调整，以求增进效率。于是资金流通，剩余之利润投资于生产，服务性质之事业也共同活用。日本既无外界力量之侵扰干涉，又有便利的海上交通，于是愈做越大。 江户的封建体制，将全民按农、工、商的次序排列。法制上的不平等，对资本主义之滋生成长起了负作用。侍可能赖债不还，商人行止阔绰，却可能无端受罚，尚有少数的事例，记载商人欠债到期不能偿还被判死刑的情节。可是另一方面这些苛刻的待遇也强迫商人苦心经营，成为社会上不可或缺的一种服务。三井一家的成功，包含着这样的因素，可以顺便说及： 三井原出于藤原家系，藤原本是日本首屈一指的贵族。至16世纪末期，三井家仍在京都附近以小型封建领主的姿态出现，只因抵抗织田信长的统一运动，兵败之后流落在伊势酿酒为业。日本初期之累积资本，只能从农业产品着手，最初主要的两项商品为日本酒及酱油。家业三传至三井八郎兵卫，此人是经营能手、商业天才。他广泛地使用三井商标，利用广告宣传，提倡不讲价还价，不赊欠只求实。他也告诫子弟，不放债于侍，免除了因高利贷而产生的政治纠纷。三井兄弟间之联系，也替日后日本资本主义的体制别开门面，其中浓厚的血缘关系及家传祖训，被继承人当作世法与宗旨。佣用之经理则忠顺如家臣。 八郎兵卫开的“吴服店”，以丝棉织品为主，迎合日本农业产品专业化的趋势。其京都江户二店，开现代百货公司之先河。最重要的则是他所设的“两替屋”，经营汇兑银行业务。三井各店在江户收得之现款，经常运至京都大阪采购货物，而江户幕府又在西部收集税款东运，彼此徒劳。于是三井八郎兵卫建议幕府，表示他可以在大皈接受款项，担保于60日内将金银在江户交纳。而实际上他店中的货物只需15日到20日由西东运。因为他信用昭著，幕府允许三井汇兑款项的期间自60日延伸到150日。至此他尚可以将流通的款项作选择性的放债，他所组织传递信息的机构则替官方传递文书。这样的成功，大体由于八郎兵卫做事精确谨慎，而且他活到73岁，有机会把他的事业系统化。 企业与政府一体合作，也使它们立于不败的地位。欧洲的王室在现代法制展开之前，经常对商人赖债。日本之封建政权则惯常以“德政”的名义，一笔勾销侍级人士向商人之借款。只是在江户时代，各种企业既已与政府结不解缘，在体制上不可或缺，因之幕府为了本身利益计，也不愿商业遭受打击。所以德川时代“德政”令只颁布过两次，范围都极窄狭。非如此，初期资本之累积必受挫折。 以上三井企业只是一个特出而显明的例子，当然其业务之展开还待客商友店代理铺户和批发零售各种组织互相支援，才能构成一种运动。其实，这种组织在三井业务发展过程中也已组织就绪。1721年人口调查初举行时，江户已超过50万口，再加幕府各大名府第及其他侍之家属，总数当逾80万，至18世纪末叶，甚可能已突过100万大关。在这尚未现代化的城市，既没有工业基础，其本身也不是海港，缺乏国际贸易的支持，何以生存？所以其背后必有一个庞大的经营机构，牵连着全国政治经济的因素，担任后勤业务。 江户时代承乎既久，各大名实际上已成为各地区农业生产的首脑。他们一般在大阪指派商业经理，称为“藏元”，其堆栈则称为“藏屋敷”，最盛时期藏屋敷超过500处，每年经手出卖之米粮达400万石，其他各地产品如木材、纸张、砂糖、麻布亦是。除供应江户、京都各处之需要外，一部分物产也送至长崎，供应对外贸易。大体上，日本已成了一个全国一体的大市场。 批发商所开店铺称“问屋”，通常为一家所有，亲身经营。最初问屋只替卖主代售物品，抽取佣金。经营既久，他们也承购大批货物，主动经营。同业公会的组织则称“仲间”，也称“株仲间”，因为每一会员单位为一“株”，这种权益为一家所有，可以世袭，不能私人转让。株仲间与传统之“座”不同。座为半官方组织，及于重要的商业，如金座、银座。仲间系在幕府禁止专利时，以秘密会社的方式发起组成，即洗澡堂、街头兜卖之负贩，也有其仲间。以后官方逐渐承认其存在，也由他们向幕府交纳年例（“冥加金”）作为代价。株仲间除了执行一般同业公会的功用，还有互助的义务。商业性的仲间，可以授权会员之间陈欠预买预卖，并且调停彼此之纠纷。幕府更使问屋及仲间构成“组”。江户即有十组间屋，大版有二十四组问屋。 银行业务并不自三井始。大皈商人鸿池新六也以酿酒起家，后来成为幕府在大贩的经纪人，同时经理32家大名的财务。鸿池于1663年为幕府指派管束大阪之“十人两替”时，其银行团已有22家，经营金银兑换及贷款业务，汇票早在彼此间流传。约20年之后，三井开始在远距离承兑幕府公款时，幕府为之另组“三人组”。各大名之物产既已储备于藏屋敷，税米又源流不断进出，藏元本人又为商人，并且与银行家来往，则买空卖空，投机生意为幕府严禁，仍照常运行。一般商人贷款于大名及侍则是普遍现象。因此除却贷款立时消耗之外，其资金进入各藩，扩大生产，也为必然趋势。鸿池新六即投资于拓殖土地。此外商业资本投资于渔业、工矿业、手工业及家庭工业，均促进日本经济逐渐多元化。 日本之道路交通网称为“五街道”，包括京都、江户之间的山道，及沿海道路，迄北至仙台、青森，支线达于甲府和日光，是主要藩主参勤交代和瞻拜神祇的孔道。只是幕府着眼于军事，不愿使战略要点摆在四通八达宽敞的道路网上，而有意的将其路线延长到悬崖津渡易守难攻的地方。加以陆运费用高，所以车运在日本难于展开。一般少量的货品用驮运，大宗货品用海运。早在1624年，菱垣回船即在江户及大阪之间举行定期的商运，但是由于海上漂没的损失，效率不高。1694年后，大阪及江户需要海运的间屋各构成“组”，实行包船，并且将漂没损失分摊于组员之间，等于一种海上保险。17世纪，船运载量也由200至400石增至1000石。1772年菱垣回船与其竞争之樽回船（以载酒樽为专长）合并，共有船266艘，并且每年公布其标准的脚费。至此，正规的海上运输已有近于150年的历史。至于“东回航线”之及于荒滨及平泻，“西回航线”通周下关包括北海岸之大部分，则在幕府指导之下，于17世纪后期由河村瑞贤规划而成。此人苦力出身，终成为日本历史上少数运输专家之一。 日本历史上之“元禄时代”（1688～1703）与威廉三世为英国国王期间（1689～1702）大致重叠，期间上述商业组织均已成熟，幕府也铸造金银货币、开采矿产。人民生活程度已有明显增进。可是从进入资本主义的程序上讲，日本面临着一种尴尬的局面。从现代西方的眼光看来，以上的表现无疑是莫大的成功，可是日本没有欧洲个人主义和自由主义的思想体系在精神生活上陪衬物质生活的进展。法制上也没有私人财产权与人身自由同样不能侵犯的观念。更缺乏与西方国家接触的机会，无法体会经济结构之紧凑立即可以增加国家实力。从儒家的观点来看，生活奢侈，则必糜烂。商高于农、僧重于仕也是本末颠倒。有了这样的离奇背景，使其无法看清新体制之来临，只认为是现有组织之腐化及政策之失控，无法以封建社会的道德观念完全代替金融经济中法制之不足。而这时候江户最大弱点则是缺乏全面性的对外贸易。专靠幕府大名及其陪臣的消费市场，生产技术无法有突破性的增进，而使发展不能继续。 此后150年，江户幕府治下的日本为政治体制与经济发展拉锯战的时期。大名及侍负债于商人，动摇了封建体制的根本。物价涨跌，也影响一般人民的生活。一意复古的人士，也无从全面推翻商业活动，恢复到理想稳定的社会。另一方面，商业资本虽得势，却没