Chapter 9 Part IV. The Influence of Democratic Thoughts and Feelings on Political Society

Equality has had a major impact on the thoughts and feelings of Americans, and those thoughts and feelings have had a major impact on the political management of human society.Next, I will discuss these effects further.Some of the content in the discussion has already been touched on before, so the reader may have the feeling of going back to the past.I especially hope that this will not stop readers from continuing to search for the truth. While equality brings independence to people, it also enables people to develop thinking habits and hobbies to act according to their own will.Equality and independence make men suspicious of all authority, and excite in them a love of political liberty.In these days, when every man is on the road to a free system, the government which men most admire and value is that which they elect a head and can supervise.

But the political effect that people fear most is also the independence of men brought about by equality of status, because anarchy in democratic countries would be a more terrible thing than in other countries.In a democratic system, people are equal and independent, and it is impossible to have a great influence on each other. Once the state power ceases to exist and people act independently, the social organization will collapse instantly, and the society will immediately reach chaos. peak. But anarchy is not, in my eyes, the evil of the democratic age, and it is the evil least to be feared.This is because equality in essence tends to two aspects: one is to make people independent and fall into anarchy; the other is to let people be enslaved in a state of unconsciousness.The first tendency is easy for people to see and resist.But the second tendency, because its process is extremely hidden and long, and it is covered with a moral disguise, so people are less likely to realize its existence.For example, people generally do not condemn the tyranny of the majority, but regard it as the result and symbol of democracy, but who has ever deeply reflected on the enslavement and oppression of the minority by the majority?It is, therefore, I think that it is not anarchy, but the second tendency, that should most be called to attention.

Equality brings independence and disobedience, which is its greatest contribution, because equality advocates disobedience and criticizes equality, which is not only to find fault, but also to chase after the end. People in democracies are as fond of simple general ideas in politics as they are in philosophy and religion.They hate complex institutions and believe that a country should have citizens with the same characteristics and a central authority as its leader.They not only tend to a single concept of executive power, but also demand the unification of legislation.In their view, people are equal to one another and it is unacceptable that the laws that apply to one do not apply equally to all others.They have an irrepressible aversion to even the tiniest of privileges.A single executive power and unified legislation are the first conditions for them to evaluate a good government.

Today, the concept of equality of status has been deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. Individuals appear weaker and weaker, while society as a whole appears stronger.The citizen as a whole has a tall and magnificent image, but once he leaves the whole, he will not be able to exist and disappear into the vast sea of ​​people.Therefore, this naturally leads to the opinion that state power is superior to individual power, and that national interests are more important than individual interests. State power is endowed with the sacred duty and right to guide every citizen forward. When the power of government has been realized by law, the American has poured into it unlimited power, willingly admitting that it can do all things.They never had the concept of privileges for cities, families, or individuals. Equality before the law was their innate creed.

So people living in our time, though free and independent, do not disagree on everything.For example, people believe that the central government should have a unique supreme power to lead all citizens with unlimited authority.Even though other ideas in politics are subject to change, this idea remains constant. It is the realistic need and natural tendency of human beings. People in democratic countries don't like to manage official affairs. They run around all day for their own private affairs, so they don't have the energy and time to engage in political activities.They are unwilling to divert their attention from personal business to public affairs, and they are especially inclined to leave public affairs in the hands of an agreed and visible representative, which is the state.

This is a dangerous tendency, and fighting it is one of the purposes of this book.In a democratic system, people have no obligation to help others, nor do they have the right to ask others to help them. Although everyone is independent, they are very weak.On the one hand, their independence makes them feel confident and proud when interacting with others; on the other hand, their weakness makes them feel that they need help from others.But they can't expect help from others, because everyone is equally indifferent and weak.In this case, they naturally put their hopes on the government. The violent abhorrence of all privileges in democracies is especially conducive to the progressive concentration of all political power in the hands of a central government representing the nation.People don't approve of other people's management of themselves, because they don't admit that others are smarter and more righteous than themselves, and they don't agree that someone can have more privileges than themselves.But they all agree that the head of state has privileges, because they are all under the head of state and are in an equal position to be led.

Therefore, the central government, which implements centralized power according to people's wishes and requirements, naturally hopes and encourages people's equality, because this will not only facilitate its exercise of power, but also further consolidate its power.It especially likes to be uniform and uniform, and to formulate a system for people.In this way, the tastes of the citizens and the tastes of the government have reached a perfect agreement.As long as the government does not go too far and make mistakes, citizens will trust the government extremely;In short, although people in democratic countries hate autocracy, they always love their central government.

Even if centralization is the natural choice of all democracies, the specific way of implementing it will be different, it depends on two aspects: the specific national conditions of the country and some special conditions.Below I will analyze some of the special factors. In those nations which lived in liberty before the peoples were equal, there is a conflict between the natures which liberty imparts to men, and the inclinations which equality afterwards arouses.Although they also chose to obey the central government, they will never give up the independence they already have. However, in those countries that did not understand what freedom was before equality came, people chose to use central government to concentrate all power.There, the country is already strong to the limit, while the power of the individual is almost zero.

For those countries that achieved equality through the power of violent revolution, people only know that the central government is the inevitable representative of the state power, and there is no intermediate power between the central government and the people.The revolution had swept away the intervening classes that governed local affairs, but equality had left the people in a state of independence and disorganization, and it was agreed that only the state could be responsible for the management of all government affairs.Centralization has become the only choice for people here. Therefore, what kind of centralized power a democratic country will rule depends not only on the degree of development of equality in this country, but also on the way in which this equality is established.Generally speaking, the centralization of power is stronger in democracies in which the people are equal after a long and hard struggle than in democracies in which the citizens are equal from the beginning, while the power held by individuals is the opposite, that is, the former is weaker than the latter. By.

What has been said above is that centralization is affected by the way equality is established. In addition, there are three other factors that directly affect centralization: education, well-being, and the head of state.Education in the democratic era is especially important for people to maintain their independence.It can both help people understand the need for a single government and teach people how to establish this government.At the same time, for independent and weak individuals, education brings a wealth of knowledge and skills that are indispensable for the maintenance of secondary power and the formation of free associations.

As citizens become more civilized through education, centralization is strengthened and perfected.The people's sentiments in a democratic country make people love peace and fear turmoil. However, such a psychology plays a particularly important role in expanding the functions of the central government in a democratic country.In order to maintain social stability and order, people are even willing to sacrifice more of their own power, thus making the central government more powerful. In democracies, the practice of centralization can lead to the head of state taking over the leadership of everything, and the head of state in turn has an important influence on centralization.The different origins and hobbies of the head of state himself have different effects on centralization.If the head of state is born in a democratic system, has a natural taste for equality and liberty in nature, opinion and habits, especially if the government under his leadership faithfully represents the interests of the people, the people will give him almost unlimited trust, and even be prepared to give him all that one can give, thereby strengthening the centralization of power. Conversely, if the head of state is closely linked to the old aristocracy and has an emotional preference for status inequality because of his education, habits, and traditions, then the central regime under his leadership is likely to become brutal.In order to maintain their independence and equality, the people will try their best to suppress the central government, and even oppose it as the regime of the aristocracy. Therefore, in order to make the centralized power possessed by a democratic society correct and strong, there must be citizens who pursue equality and love equality, and a central government that also loves equality and maintains equality. Both are indispensable. Now, everything that is happening in Europe is gradually expanding the privileges in the hands of the central government, making the individual weaker and more dependent.In addition to those factors which made the Americans choose centralization, they are also at work in the democracies of Europe, and there are also factors peculiar to these countries which are unknown to Americans.We can even think that the closer these European democracies are to equality, the closer they are to absolutism. For more than 50 years, the entire European continent has experienced many revolutionary and counter-revolutionary movements. Although these movements are different in scale, content, and participants, they all have one thing in common, that is, they all shake and destroy mediation. The local power between the central power and the people, leaving the central power alone, is the fruit of the revolution reaped by the whole of Europe. Today, the power of the central government not only covers every field of the original government power, but also further extends to all places that have not yet been occupied by individual independence.Many things that were completely out of the government's control before are now controlled by the government, and the objects it controls are still increasing. Therefore, most of the contemporary central governments are no longer satisfied with just governing the entire country. They have decided to be responsible for the actions and fate of everyone under their jurisdiction, and have consciously shouldered the responsibilities and obligations of everyone in their lives.Correspondingly, the people of these countries increasingly view the central government in this way. They have regarded the government as their mentor and guide, and they will seek help from the government whenever they need it. In general, the current central government has not only inherited all the work of the previous regime, but also further expanded its scope of work, and has also improved its own level of governance. Compared with the previous regime, it is more flexible and independent , Powerful. When I visited the United States, I noticed that the democratic society emerging in the United States is conducive to the establishment of an autocratic system.When I returned to Europe, I found that most of the European princes had begun to use similar social conditions as one of the means of extending their power.Careful study of the problem, especially five years of thoughtful reflection, has done nothing to allay my fears. In spite of this, in the previous few times when absolute monarchy was the dominant form of government, it was impossible for any monarch to completely rule a country by relying solely on the central monarchy itself, without using the strength of other local governments; Equally formulate a neat legal system to bind all subjects; it is even less likely that he will go deep among all subjects and teach and direct them hand in hand.Therefore, although the past autocratic monarchy brought cruel and heavy oppression, it only targeted some people and did not extend to everyone, and its scope was limited. Today, the despotism that has emerged in a democratic country has new characteristics: while its despotism has become milder, its scope has expanded; it no longer destroys people, but it depresses them more.Under the conditions of a democratic society, under the influence of increasingly equal people, the differences in power and wealth among people are smaller, which makes it almost impossible for autocracy to appear and become active again.Only in the heat of the moment and in the rare moments of great crisis does the government become tyrannical and cruel, which is rare.For the most part, despotisms in democracies function in a way that differs from all despotisms of the past. This despotism is over an innumerable number of equals, busy all day after their own vulgar pleasures; each of them is a solitary, indifferent to the existence of others; he cares only for his children And relatives and friends, these people have represented the entire human race, and they have always dismissed others; each of them is living for himself, and in their hearts there is only family, and there is no place for the country anymore. The regime that enforces this despotism is a guardianship regime with unlimited powers responsible for ensuring the enjoyment of all citizens and looking after their lives throughout their lives.It has absolute and unlimited authority, and at the same time it is earnest, meticulous, and kind: it is like a patriarchy, teaching people how to grow up; They seek the agency and arbitration of happiness; it not only provides for the security and needs of the citizens, but directs their principal activities, directs them to commerce and industry, prescribes and distributes their estates.In short, under its rule, citizens have become accustomed to using their free will less, the scope of their thinking activities has become smaller, and they have nothing to do all day long, so that they gradually lose their ability to act.The equality under its umbrella has made all this accepted and accustomed to it, even as a boon of democracy. Modern rulers have gradually pointed the spearhead of power at all citizens, and they are reforming the citizens according to their own ideas.They have wrapped the entire society tightly with a huge and dense net, and no one with original spirit and strong will can break free from its embrace.They no longer trample and despise human will, but soften, tame, and direct human will; they no longer compel people to act, but hinder and restrict human action; The production of things; they no longer directly destroy the human body, but make people spiritually decadent, depressed, and insensitive; they obviously regard themselves as shepherds, and treat the people as livestock, thinking that they can only do nothing. live. What I have described above is the new autocracy in a democracy.Its method of enslavement does not have the characteristics of gentleness, stability, and strictness. It also puts on the cloak of freedom and exists under the guise of popular sovereignty. It is easier to establish despotism in countries of equal status than in other countries, and when such a government is established, it will not only oppress the people, but will deprive them of all the main attributes of human beings.Therefore, despotism in the age of democracy is more frightening, and I love and worship freedom today more than ever. It is evident that in our time those who seek to establish power and position upon the basis of privilege and aristocracy will fail, and those who seek to establish and maintain authority within a class will also fail.There will no longer be a regime that can establish despotism by re-establishing the inequality of status that differentiates its subjects, nor will there be a parliamentarian whose election victory is not based on the maintenance of the principles of liberty and equality.No matter who, if you want to prove that you are a person who loves equality, independence and dignity, you must treat others equally and make yourself an equal friend.So the problem at hand is not to rebuild aristocratic society, but to extract freedom from within the democratic society in which we live.It is the central powers of democracies that have become more and more concentrated, powerful, and active, while their people have become more and more submissive and weak.Although I firmly believe that no new aristocratic system will be established in the world, it is not easy to make individual liberty more secure and equality not weakened.We must try to give some of the power we have withdrawn from the nobility to the citizens, allow them to form powerful and influential associations, and let them learn to use organizational power to protect their freedom, defend their rights, and oppose the unreasonable demands of the government. . In order to ensure that citizens will no longer be in the humiliating position of being ignored and belittled at will, we must give citizens freedom of the press.When citizens have the freedom of the press, citizens can use the press to appeal to the whole country, and if people are deaf, they can appeal to the whole world.It is the most precious and most powerful weapon the citizens of democracies have in curing most of the ills of equality. Individual power was extremely strong in the previous aristocratic era, while social power was relatively weak.So our main goal today is to strengthen and find ways to expand social power so that it can check and balance the power of the government.At the same time, we should also limit the independence of individuals to a moderate range, so that individual interests can be subordinated to general interests. Of course, squeezing or obliterating the power of individuals is not our only goal in empowering society.While setting broad and clear boundaries for social power, we must pay special attention to maintaining the independence and originality of the individual, so that the individual can better protect the individual through society under the condition of social equality.It seems to me that this will be the main goal of the legislators of our coming ages. Today, rulers think more about how to lead the people. I would like to call on them to think more about how to use their energy to create great people, people who pay less attention to work and more to work.For it is impossible for a state to maintain its lasting strength when all its citizens are isolated and weak individuals. As I said, modern man is confronted with two possibilities: one is that anarchy can be born out of equality, and the other is that slavery can be born out of equality.The former is because people have no confidence in themselves, are afraid of their own free will, and are afraid that they are enemies with themselves; the latter is because people despair of themselves, sell their souls on their own initiative, and willingly degenerate into slaves.The former kind of people give up their freedom because they think it is dangerous, while the latter kind of people give up their freedom because they think it is unrealizable. If I am a supporter of the former, how can I expose the harm and disadvantages of equality to people in broad daylight?But if I support the latter, I will not write the book that readers are reading, but feel sad about the fate of mankind in advance.Therefore, I don't think they are insurmountable. What I want to do is to alert the world and inspire determination and confidence to overcome fear and difficulty. As my research draws to a close, I would like to take a look at the whole picture for the last time, to illustrate the features of the new world as it unfolds, and to judge of the general effect of equality on the lot of men.I am hesitant about this job because it is so arduous, and my vision is not broad enough, lest I can't do it. The new society we live in has just been born, and has not yet matured and matured, and its own revolution is still going on.So today we can't draw conclusions about which of today's all will disappear with the end of the revolution, and which will survive after the end of the revolution.The lower half of the New World is still surrounded by the ruins of the Old, and we cannot yet tell which of the old institutions and customs will survive the great social chaos and which will perish. The social revolution is a long time away, but its consequences far exceed anything that has ever happened in history.Tracing the history of humanity, none of the changes can match today's upheaval, but with the context they provide, I have captured it in the broad, deep, novel and mixed picture of what is happening now preliminary outline.Let me explain its main features below. In today's world, good and evil are equally distributed, each accounting for half.The number of well-off families is increasing, and the super-rich no longer exists.Although everyone wants to forge ahead, there are very few people who really have ambitions.Citizens grow isolated and weak, while society as a whole grows alive and powerful.Everyone cares more about trivial matters around them, but the country is paying more and more attention to major issues.Extreme phenomena are decreasing day by day, and moderate and moderate phenomena are becoming more and more common.Equality is not noble, but it is made great by justice.While we cannot claim that the present world is better than all the worlds of the past, we can be sure that they are definitely different. Just like two completely different people, different eras have different sense of honor, each has its own advantages and disadvantages, each has its own good and evil.Therefore, we cannot use past viewpoints to judge the current society, nor can we use today's moral standards to distinguish the good and evil of everything that happened in the past. This is not only impossible, but also unreasonable. Let's go back and look at the whole process of research, I feel scared and hopeful at the same time.Although it is full of dangers, I think it can be resolved; although there are disadvantages, I think it can be overcome.I firmly believe that a democracy can build a noble and prosperous society if it only acts. In today's society, it has become more and more difficult to maintain the inequality of status in every country, but whether the equality that has come or is coming will bring people freedom or slavery, will it lead to civilization or barbarism, will it lead to prosperity or To cause poverty, it depends on the efforts of each country.