Chapter 30 Chapter 7 Colonies

The original purpose of the Europeans in establishing colonies in the Americas and the West Indies was not as obvious as the establishment of colonies in Mongolia, Greece, and Rome. In ancient Greece, it was extremely difficult for any city-state to expand its territory because its neighbors were very warlike.Therefore, they each occupy a very small territory.When the population of a state is so large that the state's land cannot be maintained, they will send some people to remote places in the world to settle.For example, most of the Dorians immigrated to Italy and Sicily, which were inhabited by barbarian peoples before the founding of Rome; ) emigrated to Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea, which were basically the same as in Italy and Sicily.

The original city-states regarded these colonies as their sons who had "liberated" (equivalent to what is now called separation). Although they had always provided favors and assistance to them, they did not exercise direct rule over them.The colony can decide its own political system, formulate its own laws, select officials independently, and declare war or negotiate peace with neighboring countries as an independent country, without the recognition or consent of the original city-state.And the colony is also grateful to the original city-state.The purpose of establishing such a colony is too obvious.

Ancient Rome, like most other ancient republics, established a land distribution law that allocated all public lands to citizens in a certain proportion.However, changes in personnel, such as marriage, inheritance, cession, etc., disturbed the original distribution, and often made the land originally maintained by multiple families belong to one person.In order to solve this unfavorable situation, they promulgated new laws, limiting the amount of land owned by each citizen to no more than five hundred jugras (about 350 acres).As far as I know, this law has only been enforced once or twice, and in most cases has been ignored or avoided, with the result that property has become more and more unequal, and most of the citizens are landless.However, according to the customs of the time, no land can keep the qualifications of a free man.In modern times, for a poor person without land, if he has some property, he can also rent other people’s land to operate a certain kind of retail business; even if he does not have any property, he can also work as a wage laborer or skilled worker in the countryside .However, in ancient Rome, it was difficult for poor free people to become farmers or rural wage laborers, because the land in rich people's homes was cultivated by slaves (slaves worked under the supervision of overseers, of course overseers were also slaves).All commerce, manufactures, and even retail trade, are also run by slaves for the benefit of their masters.It is very difficult for a poor free man to compete with the wealth and power of the rich.Therefore, citizens without land basically have no other means of livelihood except for receiving gifts from candidates during the annual elections.

Whenever the tribunes wished to incite the people to revolt against the rich, they recalled the ancient system of land distribution, and preached that laws limiting private property were the fundamental laws of the republic.So people clamored for land, but the rich would never give any land to them.To satisfy their demands in part, the rich proposed new colonies.But I think that even in this case, Rome, the conqueror, did not need to send citizens to the colonies.In order to have a good grasp of where the citizens settled, the original city-state distributed the land it conquered to the citizens.The citizens could not establish any independent republic there, but at most could form a self-governing body.Moreover, such self-governing groups must accept and abide by the rule and laws of the original city-state, although they also have certain rights to formulate local laws.

In terms of nature and function, the establishment of this kind of colony meets the requirements of some citizens, and since a new place is conquered, the colony basically sets up a garrison to solve the problem of whether the local people obey.It can be seen that Roman colonies and Greek colonies are completely different in terms of nature and purpose.The same word used for this system has different meanings.The Latin Colona means colonization; in Greek, it means leaving home, leaving home, and going out.Although Roman colonies are different from Greek colonies in many aspects, the motives for their establishment are obvious, that is, because of helpless choices or driven by some obvious interests.

However, Europeans did not establish colonies in America and the West Indies out of necessity, and although they gained great benefits there, the benefits were not so significant.At the beginning of the colony, no one knew that this benefit would be obtained, because it was not the interest that drove people to discover and establish the colony.Until now, the nature, scope and boundaries of this interest have not been well understood by most people. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Venetians engaged in a very lucrative trade.They bought spices and other East Indian goods in Egypt and sold them to other countries in Europe.Egypt was ruled by Caucasian soldiers at the time.Both Caucasian soldiers and Venetians were enemies of the Turks.This alignment of interests, and the monetary assistance of Venice, brought together the Caucasian soldiers and the Venetians, thus giving the Venetians the benefit of a monopoly of trade.

The huge profits made by the Venetians tempted the Portuguese.During the fifteenth century, the Portuguese sought to find a sea route through Egypt, where the Moors crossed the desert to bring them ivory and gold sand.Gradually, the Portuguese discovered the Madeira Islands, the Canelli Islands, the Axel Islands, the Cape Verde Islands, the coast of Guinea, the coasts of Loango, the Congo, Angola, Benguela, and finally the Cape of Good Hope.The Portuguese had long wanted to share the interests of the Venetians, and the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope provided the possibility for them to share their interests. In 1497, Vasco de Gama sailed from the port of Lisbon, leading a fleet of four ships to the coast of Hindustan after eleven months of voyage.This work of discovery, which had been carried out for a century, was finally brought to completion by steadfast determination and constant effort.

Years ago, when Europeans questioned the success of the Portuguese plan, a Genoese helmsman proposed an even bolder plan to sail from the west to the East Indies.At that time, Europe was not very clear about the situation of the East Indian countries.Perhaps out of ignorance, a few European travelers have been exaggerating the distances of these places, to make them seem very remote to those who cannot measure them.Of course, I think that the travelers may have deliberately exaggerated these distances just to show off that they dared to venture so far.Columbus made a very reasonable point, that is, the farther you go east, the closer you go west.Therefore, he suggested going west, thinking that this was the nearest and safest.Fortunately, he convinced Isabella of Kirst that the plan was feasible.

In August 1492, about five years before Vasco da Gama set off from Portugal, Columbus set off from the port of Paros. After two or three months, he first discovered the Little Bahamas Islands, the islands of the original Luke Islands. Several small islands, followed by the discovery of the large island of Santo Domingo.However, the places he discovered on this voyage, and on subsequent voyages, did not coincide with the places he originally intended to reach.Moreover, the places he found were not consistent with the places described by Marco Polo.He found an uncultivated jungle inhabited by naked savages, but failed to find the wealth, agriculture, and dense population of China and India.Marco Polo was the first European to visit China and the East Indies, and he was also the first to describe the local conditions.When Columbus discovered that the name of Santo Domingo's Sibao Hill was somewhat similar to the name of the Sipango mentioned by Marco Polo, he assumed that was the place he wanted to reach (although there is clear evidence that it is not no).In his letters to Ferdinand and Isabella he called the place he had discovered India.He was convinced that it was the end of the land not far from the Ganges described by Marco Polo, not far from the conquests of Alexander.Even if it turned out to be another place, he still thought it was not far from those rich countries.Therefore, on a later voyage, he also sailed along the coast of Tierra del Fuego towards the Isthmus of Dalyan in search of those countries.

Those countries have been called India ever since, just because of the mistake of Columbus.Finally, as it was discovered that the new India was quite different from the old one, the former was called the West Indies and the latter the East Indies.However, in Columbus's view, no matter what the discovery was, the most important thing was to show the Spanish court that what he had found was a place of great importance (although it was not). We all know that all countries regard the animals and plants produced on the land as real wealth, but the animals and plants produced in that place have no wealth to speak of.Cory was the largest mammalian quadruped in Santo Domingo at the time, an animal between a mouse and a rabbit (Buffon believes that it is the same animal as the Aparia in Brazil).It is said that the dogs and cats of the Spaniards nearly devoured this animal, as well as others smaller in stature, so that there were never many of it.This animal, however, and the tuatara called Iwano, are the chief animal food available in the country.

In those places, due to underdeveloped agriculture, residents do not have much plant food, mainly corn, yam, potato, banana, etc., but not as little as animal food.Although Europeans did not know those foods before, they did not think that those plants had the same nutritional power as the common grains and beans produced in Europe. We all know that cotton is an important manufacturing raw material.At that time, Europeans also believed that it was the most valuable vegetable crop on the island.However, Europeans at that time did not pay much attention to this product. Although at the end of the fifteenth century, soft cotton cloth and other cotton products from the East India were more valued in various parts of Europe, there was no cotton weaving manufacturing industry in Europe. Since the flora and fauna of those New Worlds could not prove the importance of these places, Columbus turned his attention to minerals.He believed that the scarcity of animal and plant products could be compensated by the abundance of mineral products.He had seen small gold flecks hanging from the garments of the local people, and had heard that these flakes were often found in streams or rapids that flowed down the hills.Therefore, he was fully convinced that the mountains there must contain rich gold mines.In the end, Santo Domingo, according to the prejudices of today and then, was said to be a country rich in gold mines, the source of inexhaustible wealth for the King of Spain and his country.Therefore, when Columbus sailed home for the first time, he was received by Kesti and King Aragorn.The king held a triumphal ceremony and used a grand guard of honor to welcome the main products of various countries discovered at that time.In fact, the only valuable parts were little gold headbands, gold wrist rings, and various other gold ornaments, and a few bales of cotton.What is novel is that there are six or seven aboriginal people with strange skin color and appearance participating in this exhibition.Other things are things that ordinary people at that time thought were rare, such as a few huge reeds, a few birds with extremely beautiful feathers, and a few skins of large crocodiles and sea cows. Based on Columbus' descriptions, the Kosti Council decided to occupy these countries.Obviously, their people are incapable of resistance.And this unjust plan, under the holy banner of spreading Christianity, has also become a holy cause.But in fact, the sole purpose of this project is to discover the treasures of these places.To accentuate this purpose, Columbus even proposed that the king could own half of the gold found there.Of course, this proposal was also accepted by Parliament. All or most of the gold brought into Europe by adventurers was first obtained by very easy means, such as by plundering defenseless natives.Therefore, even if they have to pay heavy taxes, they don't care.However, after the gold owned by the aborigines has been looted, they can only dig gold from the mines, and thus cannot afford such a heavy tax.In fact, in Santo Domingo and other places where Columbus found, the gold was ransacked in less than six or eight years.It is said that the imposition of this heavy tax has brought almost all the mines of Santo Domingo to a halt.The gold tax, therefore, soon fell to one-third, then to one-fifth, then one-tenth, and finally to one-twentieth of the total production of gold mines.Moreover, the silver tax has remained at one-fifth of the total output for a long time, and it was not reduced to one-tenth until this century.In fact, the first adventurers did not think that anything less valuable than gold deserved their attention, so they did not pay much attention to silver. The Spanish adventurers who explored the New World aimed, like Columbus, for gold.With a burning desire for gold, Oida, Nixa, Vasco Nugnes de Balbo to the Dalyan Isthmus, Cortes to Mexico, Halmagro and Picharro to Chile and Peru.When they arrive at a strange coast, the first thing they pay attention to is whether there are gold mines there, and then they decide whether they will stay or not. Exploring new gold and silver mines is far more costly, uncertain, and more bankrupt than other ventures that tend to lead to bankruptcy.It is like the lottery with the least interest in the world. There are few tickets with prizes and many tickets without prizes, and the ordinary price of each ticket is equivalent to the entire property of a very rich man. Therefore, the benefits obtained by the winners are far away. Losses to winners cannot be compensated.In the same way, the mining plan not only fails to compensate the cost of mining and provide profits, but also loses most of the costs and profits.The last thing, therefore, would be a wise legislator to give special encouragement to such schemes, or to invest the greater part of his capital in such schemes, which violate the laws of the inflow of capital.However, people have always had an irrational belief in luck, thinking that some industries will attract a large inflow of capital if they have the slightest chance of success. In fact, as long as they are rational and experienced people, they will not think that this kind of mining plan is feasible.But because of greed, people think that such a plan is feasible. Some people even have the absurd idea of ​​turning stones into gold, which makes more people start to fantasize about the richness of gold and silver mines.The value of this metal, for any age and any country, rests chiefly on the scarcity of its natural deposits, while mines of this metal, they believe, are in many places as mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron many.Therefore, they completely ignored the huge labor and cost of digging those gold and silver mines.Sir Walter Raleigh's dream of El Dorado amply shows that even wise men are capable of such strange thoughts.More than a hundred years after the death of this great man, Gamela, a member of the Church of Jesus, also believed in the existence of El Dorado very devoutly.What I want to say is that it is a great honor for these Jesuits if they can still preach the Gospel to those who reward the preachers well! Looking at it now, none of the areas initially discovered by the Spaniards was a gold and silver mine worth mining.The original adventurers greatly exaggerated the amount of metal they found, as well as the productivity of the various mines.However, the adventurer's description is enough to arouse the greed of the Chinese people-every Spaniard who sails to America hopes to find an El Dorado.About thirty or forty years after Columbus's first voyage, Mexico and Peru were discovered and conquered.At this time, the goddess of fate came, just as the hope of the pious was fulfilled to a certain extent, and there they found the coveted and rich precious metal. For trade with the East Indies, the West Indies were discovered; and for conquest, the Spaniards established all their installations in these newly discovered countries.The reason that really prompted them to conquer was actually to discover gold and silver mines.And the plan to discover gold and silver mines, due to some unexpected events, finally succeeded. At first, adventurers from other European countries were also driven by the same fantasy to colonize America, but they did not have much success.It had been almost 100 years since Brazil was first colonized before gold, silver and diamond mines were discovered.In the colonies of Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark and other countries, no precious metal mines have been discovered so far, or no mines that currently appear to be valuable for mining have been discovered.At first, the British who colonized North America offered one-fifth of the gold and silver they found to the king to induce the king to issue them a charter.It was on the condition that one-fifth of the gold and silver proceeds be dedicated to the king, and Sir Walter Raleigh, the London Company and the Plymouth Company, and the Plymus Council were all granted charters.These initial colonists hoped not only to discover gold and silver mines, but also to find a road from the northwest to the East India, but they were unsuccessful in the end. Although the land of the new colonies is barren and sparsely populated, due to the compromise of the natives to the colonists, the new colonies tend to become richer and stronger faster than other human societies. Compared with the knowledge formed by the indigenous people for hundreds or even thousands of years, the knowledge about agriculture and technology brought by the colonists is obviously much stronger.At the same time, the colonists brought with them the habits of domination, the ideas of normal government, the rule of law, and a normal judiciary.And, they wanted to establish these ideas in the new colonies.However, after law and government are established, the rate of progress of law and government is much slower than that of nature and technology.Every colonist owns far more land than he can cultivate, and he pays no rent and no taxes, no landowners to divide his harvest, and the prince gets very little, and because All the produce is his own, so he will be more devoted to the growth of the produce.Yet he owns so much land that, even with all his employs, he would not be able to perform one-tenth of the labor required by his land.So he began to recruit laborers from all over the country and give them generous wages.With these good wages, and the abundance and low price of colonial land, those hired laborers soon left the colonists.They buy land themselves and become landlords, and then hire other laborers with good wages.The same goes on, and the employed laborers eventually leave them.The generous wages of the laborers also rewarded marriage and enabled children to be well raised and cared for at an early age.When they grow up, the value of their labor will greatly exceed the cost of their maintenance; and when they come of age, the high price of labor and the low price of land will enable them to be landowners like their ancestors. Unlike other countries where land rent and profits devour workers' wages and the two upper classes oppress the lower class, the mutual relationship between the two upper classes in the neo-colonies allows them to treat the lower class more humanely.There, at least the lower classes didn't live like slaves.On the one hand, they only need to pay a very small price to obtain a piece of wasteland with great productivity.On the other hand, the landowner, who is also an entrepreneur, must hire others to clear the wasteland in order to gain and increase income and profits (generally, good profits) from farming.However, in a new colony with a large land area and a small population, it was not easy for the landlords to obtain these hired laborers.He is then generally willing to pay any price for the employment of laborers.On the one hand, high labor wages stimulated population reproduction; on the other hand, the abundance of land and low land prices improved land cultivation, and landlords were able to pay such high wages.This wage constitutes essentially the whole price of land.However, although this kind of wage is high, it seems a bit low compared with the result of labor that rewards the population, promotes cultivation, and finally promotes the increase of wealth and the strength of the region. In ancient Greece, many colonies prospered rapidly.After a century or two, the strength of some colonies was basically equal to that of the original city-states, and some even surpassed the original city-states.For example, no matter from which point of view, Sicily's Sierracus and Agrigento, Italy's Tarentus and Locri, Asia Minor's Ephesus and Miritus, are all similar to any one in ancient Greece. Cities are comparable.Although their construction is relatively late, they are all at the same level of development as the mother country (former city-state) in terms of literature and art, philosophy, poetics and rhetoric.It is worth mentioning that the Dales School and the Pythagoras School were the two most right schools in ancient Greece, but neither of them was established in ancient Greece, but one was established in the Asiatic colony and the other in the Italian colony.It may be said that all colonies have been established where savage and savage peoples live.There the new colonists had easy access to many good lands, and were independent of the former city-state, so that they could conduct their own affairs in the way that best suited them. In contrast, Roman colonies do not seem to have such a glorious history.For example, Florence, it took many years to become a big country after the decline of the original city-state, which shows that its progress is very slow.This is because Roman colonies were established in conquered places, and thus suffered from two disadvantages: first, the population there was almost Without independence from the original city-state, the colonists were not free to conduct their own affairs in the way that was best for them. Compared with the ancient Greek colonies, Europeans established many colonies in the Americas and the West Indies, even surpassing the ancient Greek colonies.In terms of their relationship with their mother country, they are somewhat similar to ancient Roman colonies.However, the remoteness of the colonies from Europe reduced this dependency to a certain extent, so that they were less subject to surveillance and domination by the mother country.Sometimes Europe doesn't know or understand what they're doing, and sometimes Europe just tolerates it because of the distance.Therefore, the colonial people can also pursue their own interests in their own way.Therefore, even an autocratic government like Spain often withdraws or modifies the orders it has issued to its colonies because of fear of people's rebellion.Finally, all the colonies of Europe made great progress, whether in wealth, population, or land improvement. From the share of the gold and silver, the King of Spain, from the colony itself, received a great deal of revenue from it.However, the Spanish king also wanted more income from the colonies.Therefore, Spain has been paying close attention to the colony since its establishment.In contrast, other countries in Europe paid little attention to their colonies for a long period of time.But the Spanish colonies were not for this attention more prosperous than those of other countries, nor were their colonies lagging behind for want of it.Even, in proportion to the land area, the population and agricultural improvements of the colonies of other European countries were better than those of the Spanish colonies.But it is undeniable that the progress of the Spanish colonies in terms of population and agricultural improvement was very fast and huge.According to Uroa's description, Lima City, established after the conquest, had a population of only 50,000 people about 30 years ago, and Kito was a small Indian village with the same population as Lima City.And Kemeri Calleri (a fake traveler, I'm told, but whose writings are more credible) says that Mexico City has a hundred thousand inhabitants.It can be seen that, regardless of whether the Spanish writers are exaggerating or not, the total population of 100,000 is indeed more than five times the number of inhabitants in Montezuma's time.Moreover, this number greatly exceeds the total number of residents of the three largest cities in the British colony—Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Before Spain conquered Mexico and Peru, llamas were the only pack animals in the area, and their strength was far inferior to that of ordinary donkeys. In addition, there were no plows, no iron tools, no coins, and no stable commercial medium.The trade between people is just a simple barter exchange. They use wooden hoes as the main tools in agriculture, sharp stones as knives and axes to cut things, and fish bones or tendons of other animals as needles to sew things.The above-mentioned appliances are basically the main tools in their lives.If it has been in this situation, it is impossible for these countries to be as advanced as they are today and to cultivate the land so well.Today there are all kinds of European livestock there, iron and plows have been used, and many European technologies have been adopted.We know that the density of population in a country is in proportion to its improvement and cultivation.Thus, since the conquest of Mexico and Peru, although their inhabitants have been slain, their populations are now greater than ever, and their races have been greatly altered.We have to admit that in many respects the Paleo-Indians were indeed no better than the Hispanic West Indians. The Portuguese colony in Brazil, like the Spanish colony, can also be regarded as the earliest European colony in America.Long after the Portuguese discovered Brazil, they did not pay attention to the colonies for a long time because they had not found gold and silver mines and provided little or no income to the king.In this inattention, the colony also grows stronger.When Spain ruled Portugal, the Dutch, enemies of Spain, attacked Brazil.The Dutch occupied seven of Brazil's original fourteen provinces.The Dutch were supposed to take another seven provinces, but when Portugal regained its independence (the Bragancha dynasty was in power), they became friends with the Dutch.Of course, the Portuguese also became enemies with Spain.In the end, the Dutch agreed to give Portugal the remaining seven provinces of Brazil, and the Portuguese agreed to the possession of the seven conquered provinces of Brazil by the Dutch.But before long, the Dutch government began oppressing immigrants from Portugal.When complaining and complaining could not solve the problem, these Portuguese immigrants took up arms against the Dutch.Although they did not receive overt assistance from their home country, they largely drove the Dutch out of Brazil with their courage and determination, largely with the acquiescence of their home country.The Dutch returned all of Brazil to the King of Portugal, considering that they could not own any part of it.It is said that the colony has a population of more than 600,000, including Portuguese, Portuguese descendants, West Indians, mulattos, and Portuguese-Brazilians.It can be said that Portugal's Brazilian colony is the colony with the most European blood in the American colonies. During the late fifteenth and most of the sixteenth centuries, Spain and Portugal were the two great maritime powers.At that time, although Venice was in business with all parts of Europe, its fleet basically never went out of the Mediterranean.The Spaniards considered themselves the first discoverers of America, and therefore they deserved all of America.Except for the Portuguese colony established in Brazil, most other European countries dare not establish colonies on this continent because they are afraid of Spain.The French tried to establish a colony in Florida, but the Spaniards killed them all.Since the defeat of the Spanish Armada at the end of the sixteenth century, Spain's naval power has also declined, and thus it has no ability to prevent other European countries from establishing colonies in America.Thus, in the seventeenth century, England, France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and all the seaport powers, began to establish colonies in the New World.For example, the Swedes established a colony in New Jersey, where there are still many Swedish families today.Facts have proved that if the colony can be protected by the mother country, it can always prosper and develop.However, since Sweden did not value the colony, it was soon annexed by the Dutch colony of New York.The Dutch colony of New York was annexed by the British in 1674. In the New World, the Danes only established colonies on the two small islands of St. Thomas and St. Cloth, and a chartered company administered these two small colonies.There, only this company had the power to purchase the surplus produce of the colonists, and to supply them with other foreign goods which they required.Therefore, this company not only has the desire to oppress them in business, but also has the power to oppress them.The government of exclusive commercial corporations is the worst kind of government anywhere, but even under such conditions the colony can still improve, but more slowly.Afterwards, the former King of Denmark ordered the dissolution of the company.Since then, the two colonies have prospered.Likewise, the Dutch colonies in the East and West Indies were originally administered by a chartered company.These colonies, therefore, are progressing more slowly than most of the new colonies, though they are progressing as compared with the old colonies.For example, the Suriname colony, although already very prosperous, still has a certain gap compared with most sugarcane colonies in other European countries. The richness of good land and the low price of land are the main reasons for the prosperity of the colony.Therefore, even the worst rule could not completely prevent the prosperity of these colonies.For example, the colony of Nova Bolkiah (now divided into the provinces of New York and New Jersey) could prosper over time even under Dutch rule.Moreover, due to the distance from the home country, the immigrants can also avoid the monopoly power of the franchise company to hinder them more or less by smuggling.At present, in the colony of Suriname, this charter company allows all chartered Dutch ships to trade with Suriname after paying a tax of 2.5 per cent of the value of the goods.But it still had a monopoly on direct trade (almost exclusively slave trade) between Africa and the Americas.Of course, the reduction of the company's exclusive privileges is also an important reason why the colony is so prosperous now.For example, Kurasua and Eustace (the two largest islands in the Netherlands) are free ports, and ships from all countries can enter and leave.Because of this liberty, these two islands, formerly barren, were able to prosper so much compared with the harbors of the better surrounding colonies, where only the ships of one country were allowed free access. During most of the last century and part of this century, the French colony in Canada was also administered by a chartered company.Under such bad management, its progress was slow compared with other colonies.However, after the failure of the Mississippi Project, the company was dissolved and the colony progressed much more rapidly.Later, the British occupied this colony, and its population has almost increased compared with the population of 20 or 30 years ago (Father Charlie Wan described that this Jesuit member once traveled all over Canada, and the actual number should not be underestimated). double. The French colony at Santo Domingo was established by pirates.For a long time, they did not need French protection and did not recognize French rule.Afterwards, these pirates recognized the French regime and enjoyed preferential treatment for a long time.It was during this period that population growth and technological progress in the colonies were very rapid.Though the colony was then under the oppressive rule of charter companies, this oppression did not prevent its progress; and, once this oppression was lifted, it advanced as fast as before.Santo Domingo is at present the most important sugar colony in the West Indies, and it is said to produce more than all the English sugar colonies combined.Of course, other sugarcane colonies in France were also very prosperous.But on the whole, Britain's North American colonies were the most progressive. From what has been said above, it will be seen that all new colonies prosper from two great causes: first, the abundance of good land, and second, the liberty of the colonized people to conduct their affairs in a manner that suits them. As far as the first point is concerned, England possessed much land in the North American colonies, which were not comparable to those of the Spanish and Portuguese, or to some of the colonies of the French before the last war.However, from the point of view of political system, the political system of the British colonies was more conducive to land improvement and cultivation than those of the other three colonies.The reason for this is as follows. First of all, although the British colonies did not completely prohibit the monopoly of uncultivated land, compared with other colonies, they still had more restrictions on monopoly.殖民地的法律规定，在一定期间内，每个地主都必须对自己所有的一部分土地进行改良和耕作。如果他不承担这种责任的话，就应当把这部分土地交给其他人。虽然这项法律并没有被严格执行，但还是有一定的效果。 其次，在没有长子继承法的宾夕法尼亚，土地像动产一样，是平均分配给家中的所有儿女的。而新英格兰的三个省的法律则类似于摩西律令，允许长子获得双份的遗产。在这三个省中，有时会有个别人垄断大量土地的情况，但经过一两代人的继承分割之后，土地还是会被分割得很充分。在英国其他的殖民地中，长子继承法仍然像英国法律规定的那样存在着，但由于所有殖民地的土地都因自由借地法而享有借用权，因此土地更加容易被分割。并且，大土地所有者也认为，尽快将大部分土地分割出去，自己保留一小部分收取地租更有利于自己。在西班牙和葡萄牙的殖民地上，所有有勋爵称号的大地产都保留着长子继承法，并且是由一个人继承的、不许分割的限定继承制。法国殖民地在土地继承方面保留着巴黎的习惯，其土地继承与英国法律相比，更有利于小儿子。而对于有骑士和领地称号的贵族地产，即便被部分割让了，领地或家族继承人也可以在一定期限内将其赎回来。试想，如果国内所有的大地产都是这种贵族土地的话，结果必然会妨碍土地的割让。不过，新殖民地未开垦的大地产与通过继承来分割土地相比，割让使土地分割得更快。前面已经谈到，殖民地迅速繁荣的主要原因在于肥沃土地的富饶和地价的低廉。事实上，土地的垄断会破坏这种繁荣条件，尤其是对未耕地的垄断，将极大地阻碍土地的改良。我们知道，用来改良和耕作土地的劳动，能够向社会提供数量最多和价值最大的生产物。劳动者的工资、雇用劳动资本的利润以及劳动者所耕土地的地租，都是由劳动的生产物来支付的。与其他三国相比，英国移民的劳动要多一些，因此其提供的生产物的数量和价值也要大一些。并且，其他三国在殖民地的土地上基本都实行垄断，这样就在一定程度上致使国家的劳动转入了其他资本用途。 再次，那些英国移民的劳动，生产出了数量多、价值大的生产物，又由于适当的赋税，他们可以拥有大部分的生产物，从而维持更多的劳动。并且，移民们从未负担过母国的国防和行政费用。相反，母国倒要支付保卫他们所需的费用。我们都知道，海陆军费用比必要的行政费用要大得多。行政费用一般来说不是很多，仅仅包括总督、裁判官和警察的薪水，以及维持一些必要的公共工程的费用。在目前的扰乱事件开始以前，每年马萨诸塞的行政设施费一般只需要一万八千镑左右，新议布什尔和罗得岛的行政设施费每年各只需三千五百镑，康涅狄克只需四千镑，纽约和宾夕法尼亚各只需四千五百镑，新泽西只需一千二百镑，弗吉尼亚和南卡罗利纳各只需八千镑。诺瓦斯科夏和乔治亚，每年的行政费有一部分由议会拨款，其中，诺瓦斯科夏每年的行政费用大约是七千镑，乔治亚大约是两千五百镑。总的来说，除了马里兰和北卡罗利纳这两州（无确切记载），英国整个北美殖民地的全部行政设施费每年都不超过六万四千七百镑。想一想，用这么少的费用将三百万人统治好，真的是一件值得称赞的事情。 在政府费用中，最重要的是防卫费用，而这部分是由母国来负担的。因此，殖民地政府总是用非常隆重的仪式来欢迎新总督和新议会。同样，殖民地的教会也很节俭，它并不征收什一税，并且那些为数不多的牧师是依靠少量的薪俸或人民的捐款来维持生活。与此相反的是，西班牙和葡萄牙政府却在一定程度向殖民地征税。法国虽然没有从殖民地获取比较多的收入，但也向殖民地征税。这些税虽然都用在殖民地境内，但殖民地的行政费用与其他两国一样巨大，而且各种仪式也很铺张浪费。举个例子，殖民地欢迎一个秘鲁新总督就要花费很多费用。这种仪式不仅使富裕的移民在这种情形下要纳税，而且还会使他们养成在其他场合浪费的坏习惯。最后，它将变成一种永久的、严苛的税，那就是导致富人无止境地奢侈和浪费，而不仅仅是暂时的；另一方面，这三国的殖民地中，教会也同样苛刻，他们在这些殖民地征收什一税。而且，在西班牙和葡萄牙两国的殖民地，这种现象尤为突出。在这些殖民地里，有很多僧侣化缘，虽然这种行为未经政府认可，但是被宗教许可。那里的贫民们受到教导，认为施舍僧侣是一种义务，而拒绝施舍则是很大的罪恶，于是，施舍僧侣成了贫民的一种负担。但具有讽刺意味的是，在这三国殖民地内，僧侣是最大的土地垄断者。 最后是殖民地剩余生产物的市场。英国殖民地比欧洲其他任何国家的殖民地拥有更广阔的市场和优势地位。从上述情况可以看出，欧洲任何国家都想垄断所属殖民地的贸易。因此，每一个国家都采取了各不相同的垄断方式，来禁止殖民地和外国船舶通商以及从外国进口欧洲货物。 例如，有的国家依靠一个特许公司来管理所属殖民地的所有贸易。在这个公司的管理下，殖民地人民必须通过该公司才能购买所需的欧洲货物，并且只能将自己的全部剩余生产物出售给这个公司。因此，这个公司不仅可以提高前一种货物的出卖价格来获利，而且可以通过压低后一种货物的价格，然后再高价转售给欧洲的方式来获利。这样一来，不仅使殖民地剩余生产物的价值在任何场合都被降低了，而且在很多情况下阻碍了殖民地生产物产量的自然增长。这种公司的成立，可以说是最妨碍新殖民地自然发展的了。荷兰一直都奉行这一政策，不过，荷兰的公司曾在很多场合下停止行使垄断经营权。而丹麦，直到前一任国王上任时，才放弃这种政策。法国有时也采取这样的政策。但自1755年以来，除了葡萄牙之外的欧洲其他国家都认为这是一种不合理的政策，从而也放弃了。葡萄牙在巴西的佩南布科和马伦好两大省，仍实施着这种政策。 又如，有的国家虽然没有采取以上借助特许公司管理的政策，但为了限制殖民地的贸易，使其仅能和母国的特定港通商，也规定只有在船队出航的情况下，或者持有特许状（大都是要付出高额代价的）的单船出航的情况下，才允许船舶从特定港出航。很明显，这种政策使得母国所有的居民都能从事殖民地贸易，只要他们是在适当的港口、适当的期间、使用适当的船只就行。然而，那些投资装备船只并持有特许证的商人，出于自己利益的考虑，想要合作起来经营这样的贸易。试想，这种合作最后必然会转化为和特许公司差不多的经营模式。并且，这种商人联合的利润和特许公司的利润基本上是一样多的。而殖民地得不到充足的货物供给，它们必须用较高的价格买入货物，而以较低的价格卖出。西班牙一直到几年前都在采取这一政策。据说，在西班牙所属西印度殖民地，所有欧洲货物的价格都很高。乌罗阿说：“在基托，一磅铁大约卖四先令六便士，一磅钢大约卖六先令九便士。”殖民地人们出卖自己的生产物，就是为了购买欧洲产物。因此，后者的价格越高，那么出卖自己生产物的所得实际上就越小。葡萄牙对于除佩南布科和马伦好两省以外的其他殖民地，也是采取的这一政策，只是对于那两个省则更严厉一些。 有的国家采取的政策，是允许所有人民从事殖民地贸易。对于母国人民，他们可以在任何港口，使用海关的证件（不需要特许状）与殖民地通商。在这种政策下，经商的人数很多，而且他们散居在各地彼此竞争，因而一般不会获得太高的利润。在这种政策下，殖民地可以以比较公平合理的价格，出卖自己的生产物以购买欧洲的商品。自从普林穆斯公司解散（当时英国殖民地才刚开始）以来，英国就一直采用这一政策。自从密西西比公司解散以来，法国也一直采用这样的政策。因此，英、法两国从事殖民地贸易的获利并不怎么高，欧洲商品在这两国大部分殖民地的价格也不是很高。如果允许其他各国自由竞争的话，他们的利润可能会更低。 在英国殖民地，关于剩余生产物的出口，也只是限定一部分商品必须运送到母国市场。这些商品被称为列举商品，因为它们曾经被列举在航海法和后来颁布的其他法令中。其余的商品则被称为非列举商品，它们可以直接出口到其他国家。不过，货物的运输必须使用由英国人所有，且有四分之三的英国船员的英国船或殖民地船只。 在美洲和西印度有几种非常重要的产物，例如各种谷物、木材、腌制食品、鱼类、砂糖以及甜酒，都被包含在非列举商品中。谷物是所有的新殖民地最早耕种和最主要的作物。英国法律使得殖民地拥有了广阔的谷物市场，有利于促进这种耕作的推广，使产品极大地超过稀少人口的消费量，从而为不断增加的人口储备了充足的生活资料。 在树木很多的地方，木材价值低得甚至没有价值。而土地改良的主要障碍，就在开拓土地的费用。于是，法律为殖民地的木材开拓了广阔的市场，使得原本价值较低的商品，卖出了好的价钱，并且使殖民地居民在原本耗费的土地开垦工作中获得了利润。这样，土地的改良也就很容易了。 牲畜繁殖的数量，在人口不稠密、耕作不充分的地方，基本上都要大于当地居民的数量，因此牲畜的价值往往降低到没有价值。前面已经说过，一国的大部分土地能够进行改良的条件，是牲畜的价格与谷物的价格必须保持一定的比例。英国法律也为美洲的死牲畜和活牲畜提供了广阔的市场，提高了这种商品的价值，从而促进了土地的改良。不过，乔治三世四年第十五号法令关于“皮革和毛皮定为列举商品”的规定，降低了美洲牲畜的价值，在一定程度上抵消了上述自由贸易带来的有利影响。 鱼，是北美洲与西班牙、葡萄牙和地中海沿岸各国之间通商的主要商品之一。英国的议会一直都有一个目的，那就是通过发展殖民地的渔业来增加我国航运业和海军的力量。于是，法律便为这种渔业自由贸易提供各种奖励，使其极大地发展繁荣起来。在最近的变乱之前，新英格兰的渔业几乎是世界上最重要的渔业之一。在英国，虽然捕鲸业有特别的奖励金，但效果却不佳。大家都认为，英国每年所支付的奖励金的数额与捕鲸业的全部生产物相比，其实是差不多的。而在没有奖励金的新英格兰，捕鲸业却在大规模地经营。 砂糖，以前也是只允许运送到英国的列举商品。1731年，经过甘蔗种植者的申请，法律开始允许砂糖有限制地出口到世界各地。由于英国的砂糖价格非常高，这种自由的出口没有产生多大的作用。英国蔗糖殖民地的砂糖市场，几乎还是被英国及其殖民地所垄断。英国及其殖民地对砂糖的消费量快速增长，虽然由牙买加和其他被割让岛屿日益增加的产量来供应，但这二十年内砂糖的进口需求仍然很大，因而蔗糖殖民地出口到外国去的数量也没有以前多。 甜酒是美洲与非洲沿岸贸易中非常重要的商品，它是黑奴在这种通商中带回来的。 稍微理智的人都知道，如果将美洲各种谷物、腌制食品和鱼类的全部剩余生产物，都定为列举商品，强制要求其运往英国市场，就会对本国人民的劳动生产物造成极大的妨碍。因此，一般情况下，除了稻米之外，其他谷物和腌制食品都被禁止运往英国，就是为了本国劳动生产物的利益，而并非是为了美洲殖民地的利益。 非列举商品，可以出口到世界任何地方。木材和稻米曾经都被定为列举商品，后来又改为非列举商品，但其允许出口的欧洲市场，仅限于菲尼斯特雷角以南的欧洲各国。乔治三世六年第五十二号法令规定，所有的非列举商品都要受到上述相同的限制。菲尼斯特雷角以南的欧洲各国，全都不是制造业国。因此，我们不用担心殖民地船只从那里带回来的东西会影响英国的制造品在殖民地的销售。 列举商品，可以分为两种。第一种是美洲特有的，并且母国不能生产或不生产的产物。例如，蜜糖、咖啡、椰子果、烟草、红胡椒、生姜、鲸须、生丝、棉花、海狸皮和美洲其他各种毛皮、靛青、黄佛提树，以及其他各种染色树木，就是属于这一类别；第二种是非美洲特有、母国也能够生产，但产量不足以满足需要的产物。例如，所有海军用品、船桅、帆桁、牙樯、松脂、柏油、松香油、生铁、铁条、铜矿、生皮、皮革、锅罐、珍珠灰，就属于这一类别。其中，第一类商品的大量进口，不能妨碍母国任何生产物的生产和销售。一方面，我们的商人想要限制这种商品进入本国市场，使自己能够在殖民地上低价购买之后，在国内高价卖出以获利；另一方面，商人们想在殖民地与外国之间，进行一种有利的运输贸易，即以英国为中心，将这些商品进口到英国再出口到欧洲其他国家。同样，第二类商品的进口，可以阻碍外国进口商品的销售，但不得阻碍本国同种产物的销售。因为，这种商品的价格在征以重税之后，比本国同种产物的价格要高，而比国外进口品的价格要低。限制这些商品，使其只能运往本国市场，是为了阻碍贸易差额中那些不利于英国的外国产物，而不是要阻碍英国产物。 需要提出的是，禁止殖民地将船桅、帆桁、牙樯、松脂、柏油出口到英国以外的国家，将会降低殖民地木材的价格，并增加开拓殖民地土地的费用，最后阻碍土地的改良。1703年，瑞典松脂柏油公司规定，除非上述商品由该公司的船只装运，按照它制定的价格，并按它认为合适的数量运出，否则禁止出口。该公司想要通过这种办法来抬高出口到英国的该商品的价格。于是，英国采取对从美洲进口的海军用品发放奖励金的措施，来应对这个引人注目的商业策略，并使英国在这类商品上尽可能不依赖瑞典和北方其他国家。这种奖励金，大大提高了美洲木材的价格，并且超过了限定进口国市场所能接受的程度。由于以上两个规定是同时颁布的，其结果最后还是鼓励了美洲土地的开拓。 生铁和铁条，也是列举商品。与从其他各国进口缴纳重税相比，从美洲进口生铁和铁条可以免税。这个规定一方面鼓励了美洲制铁厂的建设；另一方面也起了一定的妨碍作用。但总的来说，鼓励作用大于妨碍作用。因为这种铁制造业，需要消耗非常多的柴火，从而促进了树木丛生的地方的开发。于是，这种规定会提高美洲木材的价值，最终促进土地的开拓。虽然立法机关并没有注意和明白这一利益，然而，我们并不能否认其有利的结果。 无论是列举商品还是非列举商品，在英领美洲殖民地及西印度之间的贸易都有最完全的自由。这些殖民地如今那么富裕，对于彼此所有的产物都能提供广大的市场。从整体上看，对方对于彼此的产物，就是一个大的国内市场了。 然而，英国对其殖民地贸易采取的宽大政策，大部分是限定在原料或粗制品的贸易上的。至于对殖民地产物的精致加工，英国商人和制造者会要求自己经营，并请求议会课以高关税或禁止殖民地建立这种制造业。例如，从英领殖民地进口粗制砂糖，每一百斤只要纳税六先令四便士，而白糖需纳税一镑一先令一便士，单制或复制的精制糖块则需纳税四镑二先令五又二十分之八便士。在赋税如此沉重的情况下，英国是英领殖民地砂糖出口的唯一市场，到目前也仍然是主要市场。这种高关税，就相当于禁止白糖或精制砂糖供应外国市场，如今则相当于禁止制造白糖或精制砂糖，使其不能供应那些主要的消费市场（可消费全产量的十分之九以上）。因此，大家可以看到，法国蔗糖殖民地精制砂糖制造业很发达，但英国殖民地的精制砂糖制造业除了满足殖民地本地市场需求以外，就没有其他的了。例如，在哥伦内达由法国人占领时，各个甘蔗园都有砂糖漂白厂。一经英国人占领后，就基本上放弃了这一类制造厂。我相信，目前（1773年10月）这个岛上这类制造厂最多不超过三个。不过，由于现在海关比较松散，被磨成粉末的白糖或精制砂糖，可被作为粗砂糖出口。 英国虽然允许从美洲免税进口生铁和铁条到英国，以奖励美洲这种制造业的发展，但绝对禁止在英属殖民地上建立制钢厂及铁工厂。哪怕是殖民地人民为自己消费而制作这种精制品，也是不被允许的。他们自己消费的生铁和铁条也只能向英国的商人和制造者购买。 同时，英国还禁止美洲生产的帽子、羊毛和毛织物通过水运或车马陆运，从一省运到另一省。这种条例，不仅有效地防止了殖民地通过远途贩卖而建立起这一类商品的制造业，而且使殖民地人民除了自用或同省邻人使用之外，不能经营那些精制品制造业。 然而，禁止人们制造他们所能制造的产品、禁止人们自由地将资本和劳动投入到自己认为最有利的用途上的做法，显然是侵犯了最神圣的人权的。这种不公正的禁令，并没有在多大程度上妨碍殖民地的发展。土地价格仍然很低廉，劳动价格仍然很昂贵，使他们能够以比自己制造更低廉的价格，从母国进口几乎所有的精制品。因此，就算是没有这一类禁止令，在目前土地改良的情况下，他们出于对自己利益的考虑，也可能不愿意自己经营这种事业。因为，在目前的情况下，这种禁令并没有约束他们的劳动，或使他们的劳动不能投入到应当投入的用途上。但不可否认的是，这是由于母国的商人和制造者的嫉妒，而没有任何缘由地给他们附加了这种奴隶的印记。随着殖民地的发展进步，这类禁令最终可能会成为一种令人无法忍受的的压迫。 英国规定殖民地的某几种非常重要的产物，必须运往它的国内市场。但是为了补偿，它采取对从外国进口的同类产品征以重税，而奖励殖民地进口的方式，使殖民地这几种产物在英国市场里占有优势地位。例如，对于殖民地的砂糖、烟草和铁，英国采取的是第一种方法，即对外国进口的同类产品征收重税；而对于殖民地的生丝、大麻、亚麻、靛青、海军用品和建筑木材，英国采取的是第二种方法，即进口奖励金的方式。据我所知，第二种方法是英国特有的，第一种方法却不是，葡萄牙曾因为不满足了仅仅以高关税限制烟草从殖民地以外的地方进口，于是直接禁止外国烟草的进口，并规定违反者将受到严重处罚。 与其他国家相比，英国在进口欧洲货物方面，对于殖民地的政策是最为宽大的。在英国，进口外国货物再出口时，将退还进口税的一半或一大半甚至全部。试想，如果英国对于进口外国货物征以重税，而在其出口时又不予退还，那么绝对没有一个独立自主的国家能接受这样的出口商品。从这个角度上说，重商主义提倡的运输贸易能够持续的条件，就是实行出口退税。而实际上，英国取得了向殖民地供应所有欧洲商品的垄断权。殖民地并不是独立自主的国家，英国本可以采取其他国家对待殖民地的方式，强迫殖民地接受这种进口税繁重的出口商品。不过，在1763年以前，大部分外国货物出口到英国殖民地时，都可以像出口到其他独立的外国一样获得退税。之后，1763年乔治三世四年第十五号法令却规定，除葡萄酒、白洋布、细洋布外，欧洲或东印度的其他农产品、制造品，从本国出口到任何英属美洲殖民地时，不得退还旧补助税任何部分。这项法律的颁布，差不多取消了殖民地的上述优待。以前在殖民地，许多外国货物的价格都比母国低；如今，就只有一些货物还是这样的情况了。 在制定大部分有关殖民地贸易的条例时，主要的顾问就是那些从事殖民地贸易的商人。因此，这些条例当然是更关心这些商人的利益，而不是那么关心殖民地或母国的利益了。这表现在以下两个方面：第一，这些商人拥有垄断特权，一方面可以将欧洲货物运往殖民地；另一方面可以将殖民地中不妨害他们国内贸易的那部分剩余生产物运回本国。这种垄断特权的结果，明显是为了商人的利益而牺牲殖民地的利益。第二，在他们将大部分欧洲和东印度货物出口到殖民地时，可以像出口到独立的外国那样享受出口退税。在重商主义的学说中，实行这种退税其实就是为了这些商人的利益而忽视母国的利益。在这些条例的保护下，对于商人来说，他们将外国货物运送到殖民地去，可以尽可能少缴税；而将外国货物进口到英国时，他们又可以最大限度地收回支付税额的资本。这样一来，当商人们在殖民地出售等量货物时，较之以前就可以获得更多的利润。总之，这些商人总是可以从这里或那里获得利润。对于殖民地来说，它想要以最低的价格获得最多的货物；但对于母国来说，上述条例的规定会带来两种不良的后果：一是出口时退还这些货物大部分的进口税，必然影响母国的收入；二是退税使得将外国制造品运往殖民地更加容易，从而降低了母国制造品在殖民地市场的售价，最后影响母国的制造业发展。这也是人们为什么常说“针对德国亚麻布出口到美洲殖民地的退税，极大地阻碍了英国亚麻布制造业的发展”的原因。 虽然英国同样受到重商主义的影响，但在有关殖民地贸易方面，英国的政策不像其他国家那样狭隘而令人无法接受。 就其他方面来说（除了对外贸易），英属殖民地人民拥有完全的自由，可以按照自己的方式处理事务。他们的自由和国内同胞的自由是平等的，同样也由人民代表议会来保证这种自由。人民代表议会，享有征税权以维持殖民地政府。在殖民地，行政权力是指只要遵守法律，哪怕是最卑微和令人厌恶的殖民地人民，也不用担心总督或政府文武官员的欺压。议会的权力在行政权力之上。殖民地议会和英国众议院一样，它虽然并不一定是最平等的人民代表机关，但还是具有这样的性质。母国负担着殖民地行政机关的费用，因此在殖民地，行政机关没有必要去讨好议会，当然也没有这样的财力。因此，议会在一般情况下，更容易受选举人意志的影响。和英国贵族院相比，殖民地参议院和其地位差不多，但人员不是世袭的贵族构成（所有的英属殖民地都不存在世袭的贵族）。在一些殖民地，如新英格兰的三个殖民地，这些参议院议员是由人民代表推选，而不是由政府指派的。所有殖民地像其他独立国家一样，老殖民家族的后裔与有相同功德和财产的暴发户相比，更受到人们的敬重，但他们并没有妨碍他人的特权。在目前的变乱开始之前，殖民地议会享有立法权和一部分行政权。在康涅狄克和罗得岛，议会还可以选举总督。在其他殖民地上，议会直接派人出去征税，征收员直接对议会负责。因此，英属殖民地的人们，感觉比在母国受到的平等待遇还要高，并且他们更有民主共和的精神，尤其是新英格兰的那三个政府。 与英国相反，西班牙、葡萄牙和法国三国，都在自己的殖民地上建立起了他们的专制统治。这种统治，就是授予所有下级官员垄断权。这种垄断权的行使，由于距离母国遥远而非常苛刻。我们知道，在所有的专制统治中，首都相对而言比较自由些。因为对于君主自己来讲，破坏正义、压迫人民大众的制度，对他没有什么好处。而且君主居住在首都，对下级官员多少有些威慑；然而，在地方上，下级官员为非作歹，人民的怨声载道又很难让君主得知。与那些最大的国家中最远的省相比，欧洲人在美洲的殖民地要远得多。自古以来，只有英属殖民地政府才给殖民地人民完全的保护。不过，与西班牙、葡萄牙两国殖民地的政策相比，法国殖民地的行政也较为温和一些。这与法国民族的性格相称，其实也与所有民族的性格相称的。法国政府的统治和英国相比，仍然较为专制；但和西班牙、葡萄牙相比，还是比较自由的。 我们可以从北美殖民地的进步上看出英国殖民地政策的优越。虽然英国蔗糖殖民地和其他殖民地一样享受着自由政治，但大部分英国蔗糖殖民地的进步与法国蔗糖殖民地的进步相比，有的与它差不多，有的甚至还不如法国殖民地。这是因为，法国不像英国那样阻碍殖民地从事精制砂糖的生产；另外，法国政府对黑奴的管理更好，这一点是更重要的原因。 所有的欧洲殖民地，都由黑奴负责种植甘蔗。就目前的情况来说，种植甘蔗还是手工劳动。据说，生长在欧洲温带的人，体格不适宜在西印度的烈日下从事挖土的劳动。很多人使用锥犁来劳动，认为这会比较有利。而在很大程度上，犁耕的利润和效果是由良好的牛马管理来决定的。同样的道理，奴隶耕作的利润和效果也是由良好的奴隶管理来决定的。大家一般都认为，与英国种植者相比，法国种植者更善于管理奴隶。在专制政治的殖民地上，要对奴隶给予一定的保护，使他们不受主人的欺凌，比在政治自由的殖民地采取这种政策要容易一些。这是因为，在有奴隶法规的国家，在保护奴隶时，地方长官会在一定程度上干涉主人的私有财产。在自由国家，奴隶主要么是殖民地议会的代表，要么是代表的选举人，非经慎重考虑，地方长官是不敢干涉他们的。由于地方长官对奴隶主有一些顾虑，因此他们也就不能很好地保护奴隶了。在这些国家，奴隶享有的就是一般奴隶的待遇。在政治专制的国家，地方长官常常会干涉个人的私有财产，如果有人不按照他的意思管理，他就会逮捕他们，因此，他想要保护奴隶也容易得多，并且出于普通人的人道主义精神，他也愿意保护他们。有了地方长官的保护，主人便不敢轻视奴隶，因而会给予他们比较好的待遇。而这样好的待遇，会使奴隶更加诚实、能干，也更加有用。虽然他们的境遇与佣人差不多，但他们又与佣人不一样，他们只是在一定程度上会忠于主人，并为主人的利益行事。 我们可以从任何时代、任何国家的政策中得出这样的结论，那就是奴隶在奴隶专制政治下，比在自由政治下拥有更好的待遇。在古罗马史上，皇帝是第一个保护奴隶使其不受主人压迫的人。曾经，维迪阿·波利奥要把一个犯了一点错误的奴隶切成小块，扔进池塘喂鱼，奥古斯丁大帝非常生气，立即下令释放该奴隶主的其他奴隶。但在共和政治下，长官根本没有足够的权力保护奴隶，就更不用说处罚主人了。 可以告