Chapter 12 Chapter 10 The Moral Dilemma
The Japanese outlook on life is reflected in their virtues of loyalty, filial piety, giri, benevolence, and human feelings.They seem to think that the "whole of human duties" is divided into spheres like spheres of influence on a map.In their words, human life is composed of "the world of chu," "the world of filial piety," "the world of giri," "the world of benevolence," "the world of renqing," and many other worlds.Every world has its own, special, and detailed rules. A person does not attribute himself to a complete personality to his companions, but says that he "does not know filial piety" or "does not know giri" and so on.They don't criticize someone with "improperness" like Americans do, but they clearly point out in which area he behaved improperly.Instead of comments like "selfishness" or "apathy," they pinpoint specific areas where the code was violated.They do not resort to categorical imperatives and golden maxims.A sanctioned action is always connected with the world that the action represents.When one acts "for filial piety" it is one way, but when one acts only "for giri" or "the world of ren" - in the eyes of Western Europeans - it is quite another way.Even the norms of individual worlds may require very different appropriate actions as circumstances change within them.Regarding the "giri" of the lord, before the lord insults the retainers, the utmost loyalty is required; after being insulted by the lord, one can betray the lord.Before August 1945, "loyalty" required citizens to fight against the enemy until the last soldier died.As soon as the emperor announced his surrender on the broadcast, the requirements for "chu" changed, and the Japanese changed to show a cooperative attitude towards outsiders.
Westerners have a hard time understanding this.According to our experience, man acts "according to his nature".We distinguish sheep from goats by being honest or dishonest, cooperative or stubborn.We categorize people and expect them to behave consistently.They are either generous or stingy; cooperative or suspicious; conservative or liberal, one or the other.We expect that everyone who believes in a particular political ideology should consistently reject the opposite ideology.According to our experience in the European battlefield, there are "cooperatives" and resistance factions, but we do not believe that the cooperative elements will change their positions after victory.Moreover, this estimate is correct.In American domestic politics, we also recognize, for example, that there are New Dealers and anti-New Dealers, and we conclude that when new situations arise, these two factions will still act in accordance with their nature.If a person changes positions, for example, a non-Christian becomes a Catholic, a "radical" becomes a conservative, etc., this change should be called a "turn" and a new personality should be established to suit it. .
Of course, this belief in the integrity of behavior of Westerners may not always be proven, but it is definitely not an illusion.In most cultures, primitive or civilized, men and women picture themselves acting as a certain kind of being.If they seek power, they measure their success or failure by the degree to which others obey their will.If he desires to be loved, he should make contact, or suffer defeat.They imagine themselves serious and upright, or "artistic," or good family members, and so on.They generally have a certain "Gestalt" (Gestalt) in their character formation, and this "integration" brings order to human existence.
The ability of the Japanese to switch from one behavior to another without psychological pain is unbelievable to Westerners.We have never experienced such extreme possibilities.But in the lives of the Japanese, contradiction--contradiction, as we see it--is as deeply rooted in their outlook on life as identity is in ours.For Westerners, it is particularly important to realize that the "world" of life divided by the Japanese does not include the "world of evil."This is not to say that the Japanese do not recognize bad behavior, but that they do not see life as an arena in which the forces of good and evil are battling.They see life as a play in which one "world" and another "world," one course of action and another course of action, call for a carefully balanced balance between each world and the other. Every course of action is good in itself.Everyone is good if they follow their true instincts.As mentioned earlier, they even regard Chinese moral maxims as a proof that Chinese people need that kind of morality, and it proves the inferiority of Chinese people.The Japanese, they say, have absolutely no need for that all-encompassing ethical precept.In the words of Sir Sansom, already quoted, they were "unwilling to grasp the problem of evil."In their view, bad behavior can be properly accounted for beyond cosmic heights.Everyone's heart originally shines with moral brilliance, just like a new knife, but if it is not tempered diligently, it will rust.This "self-rust," as they say, is as bad as the rust on a knife.Therefore, one must sharpen one's nature with the same care as one sharpens a knife.But even if it is rusted, the soul still shines under the rust, it only needs to be ground to make it rust and shine.
Because of this Japanese outlook on life, it is difficult for Westerners to understand Japanese folk myths, novels, and plays unless they are rewritten, as we often do, to conform to our need for consistency of character and the struggle between good and evil.However, the Japanese don't see it that way.Their comments revolve around the protagonist falling into the contradictions of "giri and human feelings", "loyalty and filial piety", and "giri and duty".The protagonist's failure is because he neglects the obligation of "giri" because he is addicted to human feelings, or because loyalty and filial piety cannot be both.He was unable to follow justice because of "giri", and sacrificed his family because of "giri".These contradictions remain contradictions between two binding obligations.Both are "good".The choice between the two is like when a debtor is faced with a huge amount of debts when it is time to repay the debts, he must choose to repay some debts first and temporarily ignore other debts.But his paying off one debt does not forgive others.
This view of the protagonist of the story is fundamentally opposed to that of Westerners.We believe that the protagonist in the story is a good person precisely because he chose the good side and fought against the evil side, as we say "the virtuous one wins", the ending must be happy, and the good person should be rewarded with good .The Japanese love that kind of protagonist. He owes the favor of the society, but also cannot be reconciled with his status, so he has no choice but to die.Such stories, which in many other cultures teach people to submit to a cruel fate, in Japan instead become the subject of inspiration for initiative and perseverance.The protagonist neglects other obligations while doing his best to fulfill one obligation on his shoulders, but finally settles with the "world" they neglected.
Japan's real national narrative poem is "The Story of the Forty-seven Scholars".Although its status in world literature is not high, it has an extremely strong pull on the heartstrings of the Japanese.Every Japanese child knows this story, not only in its outline but also in its details.It has been disseminated, reprinted and made into a movie and widely circulated.The cemetery of the Forty-Seven Soldiers has been a famous holy place for a long time. Thousands of people went to pay their respects and pay homage. The business cards left by the mourners made the area around the cemetery white.
The theme of "The Tale of the Forty-seven Scholars" is based on the "giri" to the lord.In the Japanese mind, it writes about the conflicts between "giri" and "chu", "giri" and "justice" (in such conflicts, of course, "giri" wins), and "simple giri" and "infinity". Conflict between justice and reason.The story took place in 1703, during the heyday of the feudal system. According to the imagination of the modern Japanese, at that time, all men were men who were unambiguous about "giri". Forty-seven warriors sacrificed everything for "giri", including fame and father , wife, sister, righteousness ("righteousness"), and finally committed suicide to die for "loyalty".
At that time, daimyo from all over the world had regular audience with the shogun.The shogunate appointed two daimyo to preside over the ceremony, and Lord Asano was one of them.The two masters of ceremonies are both local daimyos. Since they were not familiar with the ceremony, they had to consult a high-status daimyo who served in the center of the shogunate, Marquis Kira, for advice.If Oishi (the protagonist of the story), the most intelligent retainer of the Asano Hou family, was around, he would have helped the lord to make arrangements, but it happened that he returned to his hometown.Asano was ignorant of the world, so he did not present a big gift to the daimyo who was at the center of the shogunate.Another daimyo's retainer was well-versed in the world, and he spared no expense in presenting gifts to Kira when he asked Kira for advice.Therefore, Marquis Kira didn't bother to teach Asano, and deliberately asked him to wear clothes that completely violated the ceremony during the ceremony.During the ceremony, Marquis Asano dressed according to Kira's instructions. When he realized that he was being insulted, he drew his sword and cut Kira's forehead, and was pulled away by the crowd.From the point of view of "giri to fame", it is a virtue for him to take revenge on Kira for being humiliated; but it is not "loyalty" to draw a knife and use force in the palace of the general.Marquis Asano fulfilled the "giri to name" legitimately, but he had to commit suicide by "harakiri" in accordance with the regulations, otherwise he could not be said to be "chu".He returned to the mansion, changed his clothes, and prepared for seppuku, waiting for the return of the most intelligent and loyal retainer Oishi.The two met and stared at each other for a long time to say goodbye. Marquis Asano had already sat upright like that, but he stabbed his stomach with a knife and ended his own life with his own hands.After his death, none of the relatives wanted to inherit the family business of the late lord because he was disloyal and condemned by the shogunate.Asano's fief was confiscated, and his retainers became ronin without owners.
In terms of the obligation of "giri", the retainers of the Asano family are obliged to perform seppuku along with their lord.The lord's seppuku is for the "giri of fame".If they also proceeded from the "giri" to the lord, it would naturally be a protest against Kira's insult.However, Oishi thought to himself that harakiri was not enough to express their righteousness, but should fulfill the unfinished ambition of the lord.The lord failed to take revenge because he was pulled away by other retainers.They should kill Kira to avenge their lord.But to do so is bound to be disloyal to the shogunate.Kira is a close minister of the shogunate, and the shogunate will never approve Ronin's revenge.According to general practice, those who plan revenge must submit the plan in advance and determine the date of action. If the revenge cannot be completed before the deadline, they must give up.This system has enabled a few lucky people to reconcile the conflict between chu and giri.Dashi understood that this path was not feasible for him and his comrades.So he called together the ronin who had been Asano's vassals, but said nothing about his plan to kill Kira.These vagrants number more than 300 people.According to textbooks taught in Japanese schools in 1940, they agreed on seppuku.But Oishi understands that not all of these people have "infinite giri", that is, the so-called "sincerity giri" in Japanese (speaking of both "giri" and "sincerity"), so not all of them can trust the idea of revenge against Kira. Dangerous people.In order to distinguish those who only talk about "simple giri" and those who talk about both "giri" and "sincerity", he asked everyone how to distribute the property of the lord.From the Japanese point of view, this is a kind of test, and those who want to benefit their families are not people who will agree to suicide.The Ronin set off a fierce dispute over the standard of property distribution.The family elder has the highest salary among the retainers, and the faction headed by him advocates distribution according to the original salary.The Dashi faction advocates equal distribution.This quickly made it clear which of the ronin had only "simple giri", and Oishi immediately agreed with the elder's distribution plan, and agreed that those retainers who had won would leave the group.As a result, the old man left, and he gained notoriety such as "samurai scum", "people who don't understand righteousness", and rascals.Dashi saw clearly that there were only forty-seven people who were firm enough to conspire with a revenge plan.These forty-seven entered into a covenant with Oishi, promising that neither faith, love, nor "duty" would interfere with their vows. Giri must be their highest standard.Therefore, the forty-seven soldiers pricked their fingers and dripped blood to make an alliance.
Their first job was to lull Kira off his guard.They went their separate ways, pretending to lose all pursuit of fame.Dashi often indulges in low-level brothels, fights and quarrels, is not decent, and divorces his wife under the guise of this dissolute life.This is the customary, reasonable and decisive step taken by the Japanese who intends to take illegal action, to ensure that his wife and children will not be implicated in the final action.Dashi's wife broke up with him weeping, and his son joined the ronin team.
People in the city of Tokyo (called "Edo" at the time) were speculating that they were out for revenge.People who respect Ronin are convinced that they will plan to kill Kira.The Forty-Seven, however, vehemently denied any such attempt.They pretend to be people who are "ignorant of giri".Their fathers-in-law, outraged by their shameful behavior, threw them out of the house and broke off their engagement.Their friends mock them.One day, Dashi's close friend met Dashi who was drunk and messing around with a woman.Even to this close friend, Oishi denies his giri to his lord.He said: "What, revenge? It's really stupid. Life should be enjoyable, and there is nothing better than drinking for pleasure." The friend didn't believe it, so he took Dashi's knife out of the scabbard and looked at it, thinking that the blade must be It will be shining, which is enough to prove that Dashi is not telling the truth.However, the knife was already rusted, so the friend had to believe Dashi's truth, kicked Dashi openly in the street and spit on the drunk man.
In order to raise funds for revenge, a ronin sold his wife as a prostitute.The wife's elder brother is also one of the ronin. Knowing that the secret of revenge has been known by his sister, he is ready to kill his sister with his own knife to prove his loyalty, so Dashi agrees to take part in the revenge action.Another ronin killed his father-in-law.There was also a ronin who sent his younger sister to Kira Hou's house as a maid and concubine, so as to inform the inside and determine when to do it.This action compelled her to kill herself after she had completed her vengeance, because, despite the disguise of serving Kira, she had to die to wash away the stain.
On the snowy night of December 24, Kira held a big banquet, and the guards and warriors got drunk.The ronin attacked the fortified Kira mansion, killed the guards, and rushed straight into the bedroom of Lord Kira.But Kira was not there, and the bedding was still warm.From this, the rogues knew that he was hiding in the mansion.Finally, they found a person huddled in a hut where charcoal was stored.A ronin stabbed a spear through the wall of the hut, and when he pulled it out there was no blood on the tip.The spear did stab Kira, but when the spear was pulled out, Kira wiped the blood with his sleeve.His petty tricks are useless.The Rogues dragged him out.He said he was not Kira, but just a family elder.At this time, one of the forty-seven soldiers remembered that Marquis Asano had cut Kira on the palace, and he would definitely have a scar.Based on this scar, the Langshi believed that he was Kira and ordered him to be seppuku on the spot.He refused - which of course proved that he was a coward.So the ronin cut off the head of their lord Marquis Asano with the same knife used for seppuku, washed him according to the custom, and fulfilled their long-cherished wish.Carrying the twice-stained knife and the severed head, they marched to Asano's cemetery.
The actions of the ronin shocked the whole of Tokyo (Edo).The family members and father-in-laws who had doubted the ronin rushed to hug the ronin and pay their respects to them.The princes of Dafan warmly entertained them along the way.When they came to the tomb, they not only offered their heads and knives in front of the tomb, but also read a prayer to the dead king.The prayer, which is still preserved today, reads as follows:
The forty-seven scholars would like to worship before the spirit of the Lord (omitted in the middle).Before the lord's vengeance is completed, he has no face to visit the lord's grave.Anxious, three autumns a day... Now I will offer Kira's head.This dagger was cherished by the lord last year, and he asked us to keep it.May the lord hold this knife and hit the enemy's head again, and the hatred will be eternal.Please pray.
They repaid Giri.But they also need to be "loyal".Only one death can have both.They violated the law of retaliation without prior notification.But they did not betray "loyalty".They must implement all requests in the name of "loyalty".The shogunate ordered forty-seven soldiers to perform seppuku.The Mandarin textbook for the fifth grade of elementary school is written like this:
They avenge their lords, their righteousness is firm, and they should be an example for eternity... Therefore, after careful consideration, the shogunate ordered them to cut seppuku, which is really a strategy that kills two birds with one stone.
That is to say, the ronin paid the highest reward for both "giri" and "obligation" by ending their own lives with their own hands.
There are various versions of this national narrative poem in Japan, and the characters and plots are also slightly different.In modern movies, the bribery plot at the beginning of the story is changed to pornography.Kira chases Asano's wife, and because of his unruly feelings towards Asano's wife, he deliberately teaches Asano to make mistakes and humiliate her.The plot of bribery is erased, and all obligations related to giri are drawn more profoundly. "For the sake of righteousness, they abandon their wives, children, and fathers."
The conflicting theme of "obligation" and "giri" is also the basis for many other stories and films.One of the best historical films is based on the period of the third Tokugawa shogun.When the general succeeded to the throne, he was still young and inexperienced.At that time, the vassals were divided into two factions about the general's successor, and one faction was defeated.They want to support close relatives around his age.Among them is a daimyo who has always kept in mind the "humiliation" of failure, although the third-generation general grew up to be very politically talented.The daimyo has been waiting for an opportunity to murder.One day, the general and his cronies informed him that they were going to inspect several vassal states.This daimyo must receive the general and his party.He seized this opportunity in an attempt to clear up old grievances and realize the "giri to fame".In advance, he planned to turn his mansion into a fortress, blocking all exits and blocking them layer by layer.He also planned to cause the walls to collapse and the house to collapse, crushing the general and his entourage to death.His plot was carried out under a high-sounding disguise.His reception banquet was extremely sumptuous.He also asked one of his retainers to dance a sword to cheer up the general, and instructed him to assassinate the general at the climax.According to "giri", the samurai cannot disobey the orders of the lord.However, the principle of "loyalty" forbade him to assassinate the general.On the screen, the dancing posture of the samurai fully portrays his inner conflict: he must strike, but he cannot strike; he is about to assassinate, but cannot.Although he has "giri", the power of "chu" is too strong after all.Gradually, the dancing became chaotic, and the general and his party became suspicious, and they left their seats suddenly.The desperate daimyo ordered the destruction of the house.The general has just escaped the sword dancer's sword, but is facing the crisis of the wall collapsing and the house collapsing.At this critical moment, the sword dancer stepped forward and led the general and his party through the tunnel to escape safely. "Chu" defeated "giri".The general's agent thanked the sword dancer and urged him to go to Tokyo (Edo) to accept the honor.Looking back at the crumbling house, the samurai said, "No, I will stay here. This is my duty, my giri".He left the general and others, jumped into the ruins and died. "Through death, he took into account both loyalty and righteousness, and made the two tend to be consistent."
Ancient stories did not focus on the conflict between obligation and "humanity", but in modern times it has become a major theme.Modern novels describe that the protagonist has to abandon love and human relationships for the sake of "duty" and "giri". This theme is not only not diluted, but exaggerated.Just as Japanese war films tend to strike Westerners as brilliant anti-war propaganda, so these novels tend to strike us as if they were a pursuit of the freedom to live according to one's own will.These novels prove that such impulses do exist.But when the Japanese talk about the plot of a novel or movie, they often think differently from us.We sympathize with the protagonist because he has love or some kind of personal ideal, but they criticize this kind of protagonist as weak because he is too emotional to fulfill "duty" or "giri".Most people in the West believe that it is a sign of a strong person to fight against stereotypes and overcome obstacles to achieve happiness.The Japanese, on the other hand, believe that the so-called strong is precisely to abandon personal happiness and fulfill obligations.They believe that the strength of character is not expressed in resistance, but in harmony.Therefore, the meaning affirmed by Westerners after reading Japanese novels and movies is very different from that affirmed by Japanese people.
The Japanese use the same criteria when evaluating the lives of themselves or those they know around them.They believe that it is weak to indulge one's own desires in conflict with the maxims of duty.That's how they judge everything.Among them, nothing is more opposed to Western ethics than the husband's attitude towards his wife.In the "world of filial piety", the wife is only on the edge, and the parents are the center.So the duties of the husband are clear.A person with good moral character must follow the principle of "filial piety". If his mother asks him to divorce his wife, he must agree to the divorce.Even if he loves his wife or the two have had a child, he has to divorce, only in this way can this person "strengthen".There is a Japanese saying: "Filial piety sometimes requires treating your wife like a stranger." In this case, treating your wife is at best a "world of benevolence."In the worst case, the wife cannot make any demands.Even if the married life is happy, the wife cannot be at the center of the world of obligations.Therefore a man cannot elevate his relation to his wife to the level of that of his parents and his country. In the 1930s, a famous liberal once said in public that he was very happy after returning to Japan, and one of the reasons was to reunite with his wife.He was criticized by the world for this.It is believed, he should say, that it was because of meeting his parents, seeing Mount Fuji, and being able to die for Japan's national mission.A wife does not belong to this level.
After entering modern times, the Japanese themselves are obviously dissatisfied with the division of moral codes into different levels and different scopes.A large part of Japanese education is dedicated to making "chu" the highest morality.Just as Japanese politicians put the emperor at the top and excluded generals and feudal princes to simplify the hierarchical system, in the field of morality, they also tried to put all the lower-level virtues under the category of "chu" to simplify obligations. system.In this way, they hoped not only to unify the country under "worship of the emperor," but also to reduce the multilayered fragmentation of Japanese morality like an atomic structure.They try to teach people that the fulfillment of "loyalty" also fulfills all other obligations.They want to make loyalty no longer a sphere of influence on the map, but the keystone of the moral arch bridge.
The most authoritative declaration of this idea is the "Rescript to Soldiers" issued by Emperor Meiji in 1882 (the fifteenth year of Meiji).This imperial edict together with the "Educational Imperial Rescript" is the true holy book of Japan.No religion in Japan has a holy scripture.There are no scriptures in Shinto, and the various schools of Buddhism in Japan either use things that are not written in words as their teachings, or replace classics by repeatedly chanting "Namo Amitabha Buddha" and "Namo Myoho Lotus Sutra".The imperial edicts and edicts of Emperor Meiji are the true holy scriptures.When it was read, it was sacred and solemn, and the audience was respectful and silent.Its degree of respect is like treating the Ten Commandments of Moses and the Five Books of the Old Testament. Every time they are read, they are taken out of the "Feng San" respectfully, and respectfully sent to the "Fong San" after the audience disperses.If the person in charge of reading misspelled a sentence, he would take the blame and commit suicide.Military imperial edicts are primarily issued to active military personnel.Soldiers are required to recite word for word and meditate for ten minutes every morning.Important sacrificial days, recruits enlisting in the army, demobilization upon expiry of term and other similar occasions must be solemnly read in front of the soldiers.Students in secondary schools and youth schools are also required to study the Military Rescript.
The "Rescript to the Soldiers" is a document that is several pages long, with a clear outline and rigorous writing.But it is still difficult for Westerners to read, and the meanings seem to be contradictory.Goodness and virtue are advertised as real goals, and they are explained in a way that Westerners can understand.The edict warned the audience not to repeat the mistakes of those ancient heroes who died dishonorably, because they "ignored the principles of justice and only kept the righteousness of private affection." (Losing sight of the true path of public duty, they kept faith in private relations) This is the official Japanese translation, which is not a word-for-word translation, but expresses the original meaning well. The "Edict" went on to say: "Such cases, you should be deeply refrained from it."
What is said here: "precept", if you don't understand that the various obligations of the Japanese have their "sphere of influence", you don't know what it means.The entire edict shows that the official is trying to belittle "giri" and enhance the status of "chu".In the full text of the imperial edict, the word "giri" in the usual Japanese sense does not appear once.It does not mention "righteousness", but emphasizes that there are "big festivals" and "small festivals". The so-called "big festival" means "loyalty";The imperial edict tried to prove that "big festival" is enough to be the yardstick of all morality.It says that "the so-called righteousness is the fulfillment of 'obligations'".Soldiers who are "loyal" must have "true bravery".The so-called "true bravery" means "you must put gentleness first in your daily dealings with others, and aim to win people's respect and love."The imperial edict implies that as long as these teachings are followed, there is no need to resort to giri. A promise other than an "obligation" is a "subsection" and must be carefully considered before it can be assumed.It writes:
If one wishes to keep one's promise (in a personal relationship) and (and) fulfills one's obligations, ... the feasibility of doing so should be carefully considered from the outset.To bind oneself to unwise obligations will place oneself in a dilemma.If one is convinced that one cannot keep one's promise and insist on doing righteousness (the imperial edict defines "righteousness" as "fulfillment of duty"), one should immediately abandon the (private) promise.There are many examples of heroes and heroes in ancient times who suffered misfortune, or died and their reputations were ruined, and left them ashamed of later generations. Righteousness also.
In this text that earnestly teaches that "loyalty" is higher than "giri", as mentioned above, the word "giri" is not mentioned in the whole text.But the Japanese know the saying, "For the sake of giri, I cannot do giri."The imperial edict was changed to the following statement: "If you are sure that you cannot keep your promise and insist on righteousness..." The imperial edict stated with the authority of the emperor: In this case, "giri" should be abandoned.Remember: giri is a small section, as long as you follow the teachings of imperial edicts, abandon "giri" and maintain "big section", you will still be a virtuous person.
This sacred book extolling "chu" is one of the basic documents of Japan.However, it is still hard to say whether the euphemistic derogation of "giri" in the imperial edict can weaken the profound influence of "giri".Japanese often refer to other passages of imperial edicts to explain and justify their own or others' actions.For example, "righteousness means fulfilling obligations", and "everything can be accomplished with sincerity".Though these are often properly quoted, the admonition against keeping private promises seems seldom quoted. Giri is still a very authoritative morality today.Saying "this person doesn't understand giri" is still one of the harshest criticisms in Japan.
Japan's ethical system cannot be easily simplified by introducing a concept of "big festival".As they often boast, the Japanese do not have a ready-made universal morality as a touchstone of good conduct.In most cultures, a person's self-esteem is measured by his moral standards, such as kindness, frugality, and professional achievements.They always cite certain life goals as goals to pursue, such as happiness, power over others, freedom, social mobility, and so on.The Japanese follow a more special code. Whether it is in the feudal era or in the "Military Edict", even if it talks about "big festival", it only means that the obligations to those at the top of the hierarchy should override those at the bottom. obligation.They are still treated specially.Westerners generally believe that the so-called "big festival" is loyalty to loyalty, not loyalty to a specific individual or specific goal.Not so with the Japanese.
Modern Japanese often choose "sincerity" when trying to establish a certain moral standard that rules all fields.When discussing Japanese ethics, Earl Okuma said, "Sincerity (マコト) is the most important maxim among all kinds of maxims. The basis of all moral lessons is contained in the word 'sincerity'. In ancient Chinese vocabulary, except for 'sincerity' ' There is no other word for an ethical concept than the word '.Modern Japanese novelists, who praised the new trend of Western individualism at the beginning of this century, are now dissatisfied with Western creeds, and strive to praise sincerity (sincerity) as the only true "ism".
Emphasizing "sincerity" in terms of morality is what is supported by the Military Edict.The imperial edict has a historical preface, which is equivalent to the preface of American documents first listing the names of Washington, Jefferson and other "founding fathers".In Japan, the main purpose of this passage is to explain "en" and "chu".
I rely on you as my shoulders, and you look up to me as my leader.Whether I can protect the country to repay the favor of heaven and the ancestors depends on you and others performing their duties.
Five precepts are then expounded. (1) The highest virtue is to fulfill the obligation of "loyalty".If a soldier is not extremely "loyal", no matter how talented he is, he is just a puppet.An army that is not "loyal" will become a mob in an emergency. "Therefore, don't be confused by arrogance, don't interfere in politics, try to maintain loyalty, and remember that righteousness is more important than mountains, and death is lighter than feathers." (2) The second commandment is to observe etiquette according to military rank. "The subordinates should treat the orders of the superior officers as I wish, and the superior officers must also treat the subordinates kindly." (3) The third is bravery.True bravery is the opposite of "blood and spirit", and should "not insult a small enemy, and not fear a strong enemy". "Thus, those who practice martial arts should put gentleness first when interacting with others, so as to win people's respect and love." (4) The fourth is to warn people to "don't keep personal relationships and trustworthiness". (5) The fifth is to encourage frugality. "Anyone who does not take simplicity as his aim will inevitably become weak, tend to be frivolous, advocate arrogance and extravagance, and eventually become despicable and selfish, and degenerate to the extreme. Even if he has integrity and bravery, he will inevitably be cast aside by the world... I am worried about this bad habit, so Admonish it earnestly."
The last paragraph of the edict refers to the above five items as "the justice of heaven and earth, and the principles of human relations", which are "the spirit of our soldiers".Moreover, the core "spirit" of these five precepts is "sincerity". "If the heart is not sincere, good words and good deeds are just decorations, which are useless; only sincerity can achieve everything."The five admonitions are "easy to follow and easy to follow".After enumerating all the virtues and obligations, the imperial edict is attributed to "sincerity", which is a typical Japanese characteristic.The Chinese attribute all morality to the heart of benevolence.This is not the case with the Japanese. They establish the code of duty first, and finally ask people to wholeheartedly and devote all their hearts and energy to fulfilling their duties.
In the teachings of Zen, the main sect of Buddhism, sincerity has an equivalent meaning.In Suzuki’s monograph on Zen, there is a question and answer on Zen master and student:
The monk asked: "I see a fierce lion attacking the enemy. I don't ask whether it is a rabbit or an elephant. I will go all out. What is this force?"
The teacher replied: "The power of sincerity is also" (literally, "the power of not deceiving").Sincerity means not deceiving, that is, "giving everything".In Zen language, it is called "whole effect", that is, nothing is left, no pretense, and nothing is wasted.Those who live in this way can be called golden lions, which are symbols of bravery, sincerity, and purity, and are also gods.
I have mentioned the special meaning of "sincerity" in passing.The meaning of Japanese "マコト" (cheng) is not the same as that of English "sincerity". Compared with sincerity, its connotation is both far broader and far narrower.When Westerners come into contact with it at first, they often feel that its connotation is much less than the usage in Western languages, because Japanese often say that someone is not sincere, but in fact it just means that the person disagrees with him.There is some truth to this view.When the Japanese say that someone is "honest," they don't necessarily mean that he acts sincerely based on his own likes, dislikes, decisions, or suspicions.Americans often say "He was sincerely glad to see me" (he was sincerely pleased to see me) or "He was sincerely pleased" (he was sincerely satisfied) when expressing approval, but Japanese do not have such expressions.They have all kinds of habitual disapproval of this "sincerity" language.They laughed and said: "Look at that frog, when it opens its mouth, it reveals the contents of its stomach", "It's like a pomegranate, when it opens its mouth, it knows what's in its heart." It is a shame to "expose your feelings" because you "expose" yourself.This series of meanings related to the word "sincerity" is very important in the United States, but has no place in Japan.As mentioned above, when a young Japanese boy criticized the "insincerity" of an American missionary, he never thought about whether it was "true" that the American was shocked by the plan of this penniless and poor boy to go to the United States.日本政治家在近十年来经常批评美英两国没有诚意，他们也丝毫没有考虑，西方各国是否确实按照其真实感受而行动的。他们并不指责美英两国是伪善者，因为，伪善是轻微的责难。同样地，《军人敕谕》说：“诚乃诸项训诫之精神”，这句话的意思也不是说，“至德”在于一切其他德行的实践都是真心实意，言行一致，发自内心。确实，它并未教导人们必须真实，不论他自己的信念与别人如何不同。
但是，“诚”在日本有其自身的积极含义，而且，由于日本人非常重视这一概念的伦理作用，西方人必须把握住日本人使用这个词时的含义。“诚”的基本含义在《四十七士物语》中有充分的示例。在那个故事中，“诚”是附加于“义理”之上的。“真诚的义理”与“单纯的义理”有所区别，前者是“足资永恒垂范的义理”。日本人至今仍说：“是诚使它保持下去。”根据文意来看，这句话中的“它”是指日本道德中的任何戒律或“日本精神”所要求的任何态度。
战争期间，日本人隔离收容所中对这个词的用法与《四十七士物语》的用法完全一致。它清楚表明，“诚”的逻辑可以延伸到什么程度，其含义又如何与美国的用法相反。亲日的“一世”（生在日本，移居美国者）对亲美的“二世”（生在美国的第二代日本移民）的一般批评，是说“二世”缺乏“诚”。“一世”说这话的意思是，“二世”没有那种保持“日本精神”（战时日本曾公开为“日本精神”下定义）的心理素质。“一世”这种指责的含义绝不是说他们的孩子的亲美态度是伪善的。恰恰相反，在“二世”志愿加入美国军队，发自真实热诚，支持其第二祖国时，“一世”却更加振振有词地指责“二世”“不真诚”。
日本人使用“诚”这个词的基本含义，是指热诚地遵循日本道德律和“日本精神”所指示的人生道路。不管在特定词句中，“诚”这个词有多少特殊含义，一般均可理解为它是对公认的“日本精神”的某个侧面的颂扬，或者是对日本道德律所示指标的颂扬。只要我们承认“诚”这个词不具有美国人那种含义，那它在所有日本文献中都是值得注意的、极其有用的词。因为它大抵准确无误地等同于日本人实际强调的各种正面德行。“诚”这个词经常用来赞扬不追逐私利的人。这反映了日本人的伦理非常厌恶谋利。利润（如果不是等级制的自然结果）就被断定是剥削的结果。从中渔利的中介人会成为人们嫌恶的高利贷者。这种人常被指责为“不诚实”的人。“诚”也经常被用来颂扬不感情用事。这反映了日本人的自我修养观念。一个称得上“诚实”的日本人绝不会接近那种伤害一个无意寻衅滋事者的风险。这反映了日本人的信条，即不仅要对行为本身负责，而且还要对行为的后果负责。最后，只有“诚实”的人才能领导别人，有效地运用手腕，而不纠缠于心理冲突。这三点含义，以及其他更多的含义十分简明地表达了日本人伦理的同质性。这些含义也反映出，在日本，只有实践规定的准则才能收到实效，并不致陷入冲突。
既然日本人的“诚”具有如此种种意义，可见尽管敕谕及大隈伯爵如此推崇，“诚”并未能简化日本人的道德体系。它既不是构成日本伦理的“基础”，也没有赋予它以“精神”。它好像适当加在任何数字上的指数，以扩大该数字的倍数。比如A的二次方（A2）可以是9的二次方，也可以是159或b或x的二次方。“诚”也是这样，它可以把日本道德律的任何一条提得更高。它似乎不是独立的道德，而是信徒对其教义的狂热。
不管日本人怎样努力改进，日本的道德体系仍然处于多层次分散状态。道德的原则仍然是这个步骤和那个步骤相互保持平衡，各种行动本身都是善的。他们所建立的伦理体系宛如桥牌。优秀的选手是遵守规则并能在规则范围内获胜。他与低劣选手的区别，在于推理的训练，能够利用足够的知识根据竞赛规程判断其他选手的出牌意味着什么，从而打出自己的牌。用我们的话来说，他是按霍伊尔规则比赛。每出一张牌都必须考虑到无数细微末节。比赛规则规定了一切可能出现的偶然性，记分办法也是预先确定的。美国人说的内心善意反而无关系。
不论在哪种语言中，人们用来表达丧失或者获得自尊自重的词句，十分有助于了解他们的人生观。在日本，讲到“尊重自己”时常常是指他本人是一个审慎的选手；而不像英语那样是指诚意遵循为人处世的准则，不谄媚别人，不撒谎，不做伪证等。日本人说“自重”，意思是“自我慎重”，意思是“你应该仔细考虑事态中的一切因素，绝不可招致别人讥笑，或者减少成功的机会”。“尊重自己”，其含义所指的行为往往与美国所指的行为恰好相反。被雇佣者说“我必须自重”，其含义并不是指必须坚持自己的权利，而是绝不要对雇主讲不妥当的话，以免使自己难堪。“你应该自重”作为政治用语时也是一样，意思是“身负重任的人”必须谨慎，不能轻率地纵谈“危险思想”，那样就不“自重”了。而在美国，“自尊自重”则意味，危险思想，也要按自己的观点和良心来思考。
“你应该自重”，这是父母经常挂在嘴上训诫其青年子女的话，指的是要懂礼貌，不要辜负别人的希望。例如，女孩子坐时不能乱动，双腿位置要摆正。男孩子则要锻炼身体，学会察言观色，“因为今天是决定未来的重要时刻”。父亲对孩子说：“你的行动不像一个自重的人”，这是责备孩子行为不庄重，而不是责备他缺乏勇气，不能坚持自己认为正确的意见。
还不起欠债的农民对债主说：“我应该自重”，这话的意思并不是责备自己懒怠，或者责备对债权人卑躬屈膝，而是说他对应急之需本应该考虑周到。有社会地位的人说：“我的自尊心要求我这样”，这并不意味他必须按照正直、廉洁等原则办事，而是意味他在处理事情时必须充分考虑门第的地位，掂量掂量自己身份的重量。
实业家谈到他的公司时说：“我们必须自重”，意思是说必须慎重再慎重，小心再小心。要复仇的人说“自重地复仇”，这句话的意思并不是“把炭火堆在仇敌的头上”，也不是打算遵守什么道德原则，而是说必须周密计划，考虑到一切因素，等于说“一定要完全彻底复仇”。在日语中，“自重再自重”，是最强烈的语气，意思是万分小心，无限谨慎，绝不可轻下结论。它还意味着，必须权衡各种方法和手段，用力不多不少，恰可达到目的。
所有上述“自重”的含义都符合日本人的人生观，即认为人生应该是小心谨慎地按照“霍伊尔”规则行动的世界。由于他们对自重规定了如上的定义，因而不允许以用心良好为理由来为失败辩解。一举手、一投足都有其后果，人们采取行动时不能不考虑这些后果。施恩于人是好事，但必须估计到受恩的人是否会感到“背上恩债”，不可不慎。批评人是可以的，但必须准备承担因此而产生的怨恨。当那位年轻画家指责美国传教士嘲笑他时，尽管说传教士是善意的，那也没有用。传教士没有考虑到他在棋盘上走那一步棋的后果，这在日本人看来就是修养不够。
把谨慎与自重完全等同，这就包含着要悉心观察别人行动中的一切暗示，并且强烈地感到别人是在评论自己。他们说“一个人要自重，因为有社会”，“如果没有社会，就用不着自重”等等，这些极端的说法表明，自重出于外部的强制，毫未考虑到正确行为的内省要求。像许多国家的俗话一样，这些说法未免夸张，因为，日本人对自己深重的罪孽有时也像清教徒一样，反应很强烈。尽管如此，上述极端的说法仍然指明了日本重视的是什么：与其说他们重视罪，毋宁说他们更重视耻。
在人类学对各种文化的研究中，区别以耻为基调的文化和以罪为基调的文化是一项重要工作。提倡建立道德的绝对标准并且依靠它发展人的良心，这种社会可以定义为“罪感文化”。不过，这种社会的人，例如在美国，在做了并非犯罪的不妥之事时，也会自疚而另有羞耻感。比如，有时因衣着不得体，或者言辞有误，都会感到懊恼。在以耻为主要强制力的文化中，对那些在我们看来应该是感到犯罪的行为，那里的人们则感到懊恼。这种懊恼可能非常强烈，以至不能像罪感那样，可以通过忏悔、赎罪而得到解脱。犯了罪的人可以通过坦白罪行而减轻内心重负。坦白这种手段已运用于世俗心理疗法，许多宗教团体也运用，虽然这两者在其他方面很少共同之处。我们知道，坦白可以解脱。但在以耻为主要强制力的地方，有错误的人即使当众认错，甚至向神父忏悔，也不会感到解脱。他反而会感到，只要不良行为没有暴露在社会上，就不必懊丧，坦白忏悔只能是自寻烦恼。因此，耻感文化中没有坦白忏悔的习惯，甚至对上帝忏悔的习惯也没有。They have prayers for happiness, but not for redemption.
真正的耻感文化依靠外部的强制力来做善行。真正的罪感文化则依靠罪恶感在内心的反应来做善行。羞耻是对别人批评的反应。一个人感到羞耻，是因为他或者被公开讥笑、排斥，或者他自己感觉被讥笑，不管是哪一种，羞耻感都是一种有效的强制力。但是，羞耻感要求有外人在场，至少要感觉到有外人在场。罪恶感则不是这样。有的民族中，名誉的含义就是按照自己心目中的理想自我而生活，这里，即使恶行未被人发觉，自己也会有罪恶感，而且这种罪恶感会因坦白忏悔而确实得到解脱。
早期移居美国的清教徒们曾努力把一切道德置于罪恶感的基础之上。所有精神病学者都知道，现代美国人是如何为良心所苦恼。但是在美国，羞耻感正在逐渐加重其分量，而罪恶感则已不如以前那么敏锐。美国人把这种现象解释为道德的松弛。这种解释虽然也包藏着很多真理，但这是因为我们没有指望羞耻感能对道德承担重任。我们也不把伴随耻辱而出现的强烈的个人恼恨纳入我们道德的基本体系。
日本人正是把羞耻感纳入道德体系的。不遵守明确规定的各种善行标志，不能平衡各种义务或者不能预见到偶然性的失误，都是耻辱。他们说，知耻为德行之本。对耻辱敏感就会实践善行的一切准则。“知耻之人”这句话有时译成“有德之人”（Virtuous man），有时译成“重名誉之人”（Man of honour）。耻感在日本伦理中的权威地位与西方伦理中的“纯洁良心”、“笃信上帝”、“回避罪恶”的地位相等。由此得出的逻辑结论则是，人死之后就不会受惩罚。日本人——读过印度经典的僧侣除外——对那种前世功德、今生受报的轮回报应观念是很陌生的。除了少数皈依基督教者外，他们不承认死后报应及天堂地狱之说。
耻感在日本人生活中的重要性，恰如一切看重耻辱的部落或民族一样，其意义在于，任何人都十分注意社会对自己行动的评价。他只需推测别人会做出什么样的判断，并针对别人的判断而调整行动。当每个人按照同一规则玩游戏并相互支援时，日本人就会愉快而轻松地参加。当他们感到这是履行日本的“使命”时，他们就会狂热地参加。当他们试图把自己的道德输出到那些并不通行日本的善行标志的外国时，他们就最易遭受攻击。他们“善良”的“大东亚”使命失败了。许多日本人对中国人和菲律宾人所采取的态度实在感到愤慨。
那些为求学或经商来到美国的日本人，试图在这个道德规律不那么严格的社会生活时，常常痛感他们过去所接受的那种细致周到的教育是个“失败”，这并非受国家主义的感情所驱使。他们感到，日本的道德无法顺利输出，其含义并非一般所谓改变文化对任何人来说都很困难的，而远比这更多。他们感到，日本人适应美国式生活比他们所熟知的中国人、暹罗人要困难得多。在他们看来，日本人的特殊问题在于，他们是靠这样一种微妙的安全感长大的，即只要一切都按规矩行事，就会得到别人承认。看到外国人对这类礼节满不在乎，他们就不知如何是好。他们千方百计寻找西方人生活中与日本人类似的细微礼节，找不到时，有的非常愤慨，有的则感到愕然。
三岛女士的自传《我的狭岛祖国》，最出色地描写了她在道德规则不甚严格的文化中所感受的体验。她渴望到美国留学，并且说服了她的保守家庭，排除“不愿受恩”的观点，接受美国奖学金，进入了卫斯理学院。她说，老师学生对她都特别亲近，但这却使她很不安。“日本人的共同特点是以操行毫无缺陷而自傲，我这种自傲却受到严重伤害。我不知道在这里该如何行动，周围的环境似乎在嘲笑我以往的训练。我为此而恼恨。除了这种模糊而深刻的恼恨以外，我心中再无其他感情。”她感到自己“似乎是一个从其他行星上掉下来的生物，原有的感觉和情绪在这个世界都用不上。日本式的教养，要求任何动作都要文静，每一句言辞都要符合礼貌，这就使我在当前的环境中极为敏感，十分警觉，以至在社交中茫然不知所措。”她花了二三年的时间才解除紧张状态，开始接受别人的好意。她断定，美国人生活在一种她所谓“优美的亲密感”之中，而“亲密感在我三岁时就被当做不礼貌而扼杀了”。
三岛女士把她在美国结识的日本女孩子和中国女孩子作了比较。她评论说，美国生活对两国姑娘的影响非常不同。中国姑娘“具有的那种沉着风度和社交能力是大多数日本姑娘所缺少的。这些上流的中国姑娘人人都具有近乎皇家的仪表，仿佛她们就是这个社会的真正主人，使我感到她们是世界上最文雅的人。即使在高度机械与速度的文明中，她们也不为所动，其安详和沉着与日本姑娘的怯懦、拘谨形成强烈对比，显示出社会背景的一些根本差异。”
和许多其他日本人一样，三岛女士感到，好像网球名将参加槌球游戏，出色技艺都用不上了。她感到过去学的东西不能带到新环境里来。她所受过的训练没有用处。美国人用不着那些东西。
日本人一旦接受了美国那种不甚烦琐的行为规则，即便接受的不深，也无法想象他们能够再过日本那种规矩烦苛的生活了。他们把过去的生活有时说成是失去的乐园，有时说成是“桎梏”，有时说成是“牢笼”，有时又说成是盆栽的小树。这棵小松树的根培植在花盆里时，就是一件为精致庭园增添雅趣的艺术品；但一旦移植到地上就不可能再成其为盆栽了。他们已感到再不能成为日本庭园的点缀，再不能适应往昔的要求。他们最尖锐地经历了日本道德的困境。
Notes:
Notes: