Chapter 9 Chapter 9 The "Vietnam War" of the Ming Dynasty

Emperor Chengzu Yongle of Ming Dynasty Zhu Di reigned for 22 years. He fought numerous battles in foreign countries throughout his life. He conquered Mongolia 5 times and went as far as today’s Russia.However, historians have not paid much attention to another war that was carried out almost at the same time for a long time-the Ming Annan War. Annan, the ancient name of Vietnam. During the Ming Dynasty, the northern part of Vietnam was called Annan, and the southern part was called Champa. Since the founding of the state at the end of Tang Dynasty, it has been a friendly vassal of Southwest China. From Song to Yuan, it has always paid tribute to China.In the first year of Hongwu in the Ming Dynasty, shortly after Zhu Yuanzhang ascended the throne, Annan sent an envoy to the court. He was the first country among the vassals around China to recognize the Ming Dynasty as the "suzerain".In the middle and late period of Hongwu, when the "Hu Lan" case occurred one after another in the Ming Dynasty and was busy fighting with the remnants of the Northern Yuan Dynasty, Annan also took advantage of the situation and marched northward, repeatedly invading Ningming and other areas in Guangxi.Zhu Yuanzhang once wanted to go south to Annan, but in the end he didn't want to take the trouble to go on an expedition. In the end, he just sent envoys to reprimand him.During the Yongle period, all kinds of conflicts accumulated and evolved into a war that once dragged Ming into the quagmire of the "Vietnam War" and brought endless disasters to the local Vietnamese people-the Ming and Pingnan Wars.

The fuse of the war between the Ming Dynasty and Annan was a coup in Annan's country. In today's Vietnamese historical materials, it is called "Chen Li's Change". Before Zhu Di came to the throne, the king of Annan had always been hereditary from the local Chen family, who had been canonized by China for generations, and was called "Chen's Annan" in history.In 1400 AD, when Zhu Di launched the "Battle of Jingnan" to usurp the throne, the Li family in Annan also launched a coup, killing the king to stand on his own feet. .In the first year of Yongle (1403 A.D.), he sent envoys to Nanjing, falsely claiming that King Chen of Annan died of illness and had no heirs.Suspicious, Zhu Di sent his minister Yang Bo to Annan to investigate, but Yang Bo was bribed by Hu Yiyuan with a lot of money, and he tried his best to provide circumstantial evidence after returning home.Zhu Di's doubts gradually disappeared, so he pushed the boat along the river, so in August of that year, he ordered Xia Zhishan, the servant of the Ministry of Rites, to go to Annan, and canonized the Hu family as the king of Annan.But "paper can't contain the fire." In a few days, Lu Boshe, the former minister of Annan, fled to Nanjing, met with Zhu Di to expose the truth, and confronted the envoy of Annan, and finally the truth came out.The deceived Zhu Di was very angry, but when Lu Boshe begged Zhu Di to become a "master of hanging and cutting", that is, to use force to help the Chen family restore the country, Zhu Di hesitated.After Xuanwei Division of Laos sent Chen Tianping, a clan member of the Chen family who had fled abroad, Zhu Di decided to take a relatively safe approach. First, he sent Yushi Li Qi to Annan to express his "strongest protest" and denounce the Hu family for the crime of usurping Under heavy pressure, the Hu family really relented. Hu Yiyuan and his son pleaded guilty to Zhu Di, and expressed their willingness to welcome back the descendants of the Chen family as kings. Zhong and Lu Yi escorted Chen Tianping back to the country. In addition to "upholding justice", this move also had the purpose of taking the opportunity to claim Annan's invasion and occupation of Daming's territory. A "usurping farce" seems to have been "peaceful" under Zhu Di's hard and soft actions. solve".

In March of the fourth year of Yongle, Huang Zhong and others escorted Chen Tianping into the territory of Annan. When he arrived at Jiling Pass (now Vietnam Old Street), Annan sent people to reward him. Hu Yiyuan then executed Chen Tianping publicly in front of the Ming army, and Lu Song, the envoy sent by the Ming Dynasty to Annan, was also killed by Hu Yiyuan. The 4,000 Ming army's attack was frustrated and had to return home in a hurry.This was "blatantly trampling on the dignity of the Ming Dynasty". When the news spread to the capital, Zhu Di became furious, and the court scolded the Hu family and his son as "a clown and a heinous crime. If this thief is not punished, what's the use of soldiers"?Finally made up my mind to conquer Annan in the south.

On July 1st of the fourth year of Yongle, Zhu Di issued the "Calling for Annan", claiming that he "ordered the generals to go out, hang the people and punish crimes" and do a good job of "propaganda work", and then appointed Xiping Hou Musheng, who was guarding Yunnan, as the "Left Deputy General of Yiyi". Entering troops from Yunnan, Zhu Neng, the Duke of Cheng, served as General Zhengyi, and together with Zhang Fu, Marquis of Xincheng, who served as "General Zhengyi Right", led the "Generals of the Eighteenth Route" and marched from Guangxi.This mobilization of troops was said to be 800,000 troops, but the actual strength was no less than 300,000. In addition to mobilizing elite soldiers from Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guangxi who are good at fighting in hot and humid climates, tens of thousands of "guards" were mobilized from various vassal kings. The effect of "reducing the vassal" was achieved by taking advantage of Annan.For this dispatch of troops, Zhu Di, who is proficient in military affairs, planned carefully. In order to prevent the generals from discord, he repeatedly warned Zhu Neng and Mu Sheng that they "don't violate the harmony for any reason."Discipline is also extremely strict, stipulating that "those who kill recklessly will not be redeemed for their crimes even though they have made meritorious deeds."In the notice written to the generals, he even pointed out "precautions" such as preventing enemy ambushes, beware of hot weather and local plagues, and appeasing the local people.In addition, Zhu Di made a surprise victory by sending the eunuch Ma Bin to mobilize naval forces from Guangdong and Fujian provinces to Champa (South Vietnam) along the coastal road to intercept the deserters from Annan.The eunuch's command of the army began from this.

Unexpectedly, it was unfavorable to start the army. "General Zhengyi" Zhu Nengxing died of illness when he arrived in Longzhou, Guangxi. Zhang Fu, who was only 31 years old, was ordered to act as General Zhengyi when he was in danger.Zhang Fu encouraged the generals to "in the past, King Kaiping (Chang Yuchun) passed away during his expedition, and King Qiyang defeated the Yuan army on his behalf. Although I am not talented, I would like to follow the example of my predecessors."In October of that year, Zhang Fu's troops entered the territory of Annan and fought steadily. They even joined Keailiu and Jiming Pass (now Gantang, Laojie, Vietnam), and joined forces with another army, Mu Sheng, to attack Duobang, an important town in the north of Annan. .Duobang, which is Lang Son in Vietnam today, has been said since ancient times that "Go down to Lang Son and the king of Yue descends".Hu's father and son also knew the importance of this battle. Relying on the four natural dangers of Xuanjiang, Taojiang, Fuliangjiang, and Tuojiang in Duobang (Lang Son), they dug trenches widely in the local area, built defensive fortresses, and densely installed bows and crossbows. The firearms and projectiles are all soaked in poison, and they will die when they touch them. All kinds of city gates are connected for 900 miles, and "all the people are soldiers".Zhang Fu knew very well that "once this city is broken, it will be like a broken bamboo", so he carefully planned, first stabilized the camp, and then sent small groups of troops to launch feint attacks one after another to divert the enemy's attention until the decisive battle broke out on the night of December 5, and the Ming army launched a surprise attack. .The governor Huang Zhong, who had been plotted against by Annan while escorting Chen Tianping, took the initiative to invite Ying, and led a death squad (that is, the 4,000 soldiers who escorted Chen Tianping) to break through and storm the east gate of Duobang. , and finally climbed to the top of the city.A gap was opened, and the 300,000 Ming army took advantage of the trend to attack, and the "Multiple Nations Line of Defense" that the Hu family and his son had painstakingly managed collapsed overnight.When the city was broken, Annan's army pulled out "back carbine guns" and sent war elephants to counterattack the Ming army, intending to turn the tide.Zhang Fu had been prepared for a long time, aiming at the volley with muskets and hard crossbows. Thousands of elephants became "live targets" and trampled countless officials and people in Annan. The Ming army took advantage of the victory to pursue and finally conquered Duobang City. Was killed, according to historical records, "beheading captives is useless."Today, many Vietnamese historical materials testify that the death toll of the Vietnamese army in this battle was no less than 100,000. The navy that wiped out Hu's father and son, beheaded 37,000 people, "drowning is useless."Hu's father and son were captured after fleeing, escorted to the capital and beheaded.At this point, the Battle of Pingan South, which lasted for one year, came to an end.

In the Battle of Pingannan, Zhang Fu conquered the entire territory of Annan in only one year, "winning 48 prefectures and 3.3 million households", which can be called an incomparable achievement.Contrary to people's imagination today, Annan was not an ordinary "small country" at this time. For many years, he conquered Laos, Siam (Thailand), Champa (South Vietnam) and other countries, and even harassed China's Guangxi, Yunnan border.Some of its firearms and equipment were more advanced than those of the Ming army. Later, some of the firearms of the Shenji Camp in the Ming Dynasty were improved from the firearms captured by the Vietnamese army in the Battle of Annan.It can be seen that Zhu Di's Battle of Ping'an South was actually a self-defense counterattack war to ensure the safety of the border, and the victory was not easy.The quick victory of the Ming army was due to Zhang Fu's well-planned and well-planned, upper and lower armies, and the correct strategy of attacking the heart.Since entering the territory of Annan, the Ming army has issued an appeal to the local officials and people, claiming that they came here to help the Chen family restore the country, and warned the people of Annan not to "assist rebellion".In addition, the Ming army was strictly disciplined and did not commit any crimes against Min Qiu. They also confiscated the "reverse property" of the Hu family and his son and distributed it to the local poor.The multi-state battle that determined the overall situation of the war was the successful surprise attack by the Ming army led by the local villagers, and the battle of Fuliangjiang that finally wiped out the Hu family and his son. Sealed as a pioneer, breaking it in one fell swoop.The fleeing Hu family father and son were also captured by the local people and sent to the Ming army in bundles.The key to Annan's victory is the support of the people.

In May of the fifth year of Yongle, Zhang Fu sent the captured Hu family father and son to Nanjing, and reported that the Chen clan had been slaughtered by the Hu family father and son. It is still difficult to find the clan. Annan was attached to Daming.Zhu Di issued an edict to behead the father and son of the Hu family, and Hu Guang and others proposed to take the opportunity to set up a county in Annan and incorporate it into the Chinese territory.Zhu Di's "Old Officials of King Yan's Mansion" responded one after another. Although the civil servants Xie Jin, Yang Shiqi, and the "first counselor" Yao Guangxiao tried their best to oppose it, the complacent Zhu Di still readily accepted it. "Nanzhao", Zhang Fu was promoted to "British Duke", Annan was changed to "Jiaozhi", Jiaozhi County was established, and Huang Fu, Shangshu of the Ministry of Industry, was appointed as the chief envoy and inspector of Jiaozhi.It was this decision that seemed to "conquer the barbarians" that made Ming, who had already succeeded in the Southern Expedition, fall into the quagmire of the "Vietnam War" that lasted for more than ten years.

In June of the sixth year of Yongle (AD 1408), Zhu Di recruited Zhang Fu, who was stationed in Annan, to return to Beijing in order to plan the Northern Expedition to Mongolia, leaving Mu Sheng to guard the area.However, only half a year later, in August of that year, the war in Annan resumed. Jian Ding, the former minister of the Chen Dynasty in Annan, gathered a crowd to rebel.Afterwards, Jian Ding proclaimed himself the King of Rinan, and made his nephew Chen Jikuo emperor.Zhu Di was furious when he heard the news. He first killed the envoys sent by the rebel army to Nanjing, and then massively increased his troops, dispatching 40,000 elite soldiers from Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces. Holding the edict to appease, attempting to "suppress and appease."In December of that year, Mu Sheng led his army to a decisive battle with Chen Jianding in Annan Shengjuejiang (now Fengying County, Vietnam). Because he underestimated the enemy, he was encircled by Jian Ding and his army. Lv Yi and Liu Jun, Minister of the Ministry of War sent to Annan to recruit, were all killed in this battle.Annan "established the province" only a year ago, but the situation quickly eroded.

The reason is that the root of the disaster was planted as early as when Zhu Di decided to set up "Jiaozhi County". If it is abolished and established, I am afraid that the soldiers in Annan will complain, and the campers will rise up, and there will be endless troubles." This statement is true. Although the Chen Dynasty was weak and incompetent, the Vietnamese people had deep feelings for it. When the Ming army defeated the Hu family and his sons, , It was under the banner of helping the Chen family to restore the country that the Vietnamese people responded.The result was that Annan was changed to Jiaozhi and the province was forcibly established.The rebellious Jian Ding was the clan of the original King Chen of Annan, similar to the "Uncle Liu Huang" in the Three Kingdoms. Under the banner of the Chen Clan, many people in Annan naturally joined him.

Under the chaos, Zhu Di used Zhang Fu again. In February of the seventh year of Yongle (1409 AD), Zhu Di ordered Zhang Fu to supervise the division and send 200,000 troops to the south. At that time, Zhu Di intended to attack Mongolia in the north. win".Zhang Fu was not in a hurry to enter the army. After arriving in Annan, he first appeased the local refugees who fled due to the war, severely punished the local officials of the Ming Dynasty who were corrupt, violent and harmed the people, and continued to "attack the mind". Smash Xianziguan, the old nest of the rebels, and burn 600 rebel warships with fire attack.By November, most of the rebel areas had been pacified. In mid-November, Zhang Fu and the rebels launched the Battle of Shentouhai.He ordered Zhu Rong and Cai Fu to lead the cavalry to outflank the land, and led the navy to attack by force, advancing both on land and water, beheading more than 40,000 rebels, and successfully captured the leader of the rebels, Jian Ding.By January of the following year, Zhang Fu had wiped out all the rebels from all walks of life, but Chen Jikuo, the "nephew emperor" established by Jian Ding, led his troops to retreat to Annan Yi'an, lingering on his last breath.At this moment, a "turning point" appeared. Zhu Di from the north sent Qiu Fu to conquer Mongolia, and the entire army was wiped out. In a rage, Zhu Di dispatched 500,000 troops to the northern expedition and ordered Zhang Fu to go north quickly. The task of suppressing the rebellion in Annan had to be left to the former The defeated Mu Sheng and others.Sure enough, as soon as Zhang Fu left, Chen Jikuo launched a counterattack on the back and defeated Mu Sheng.

In February of the eighth year of Yongle, Zhu Di made a great victory in the Northern Expedition to Mongolia, and defeated the Mongolian Tatar Khan Benya at Genghis Khan's hometown Onan River. .This time, the emissary tried his best to flatter horses, which attracted Zhu Di's "Longyan Joy", and named Chen Jixuan the "Jiaozhi Chief Envoy". Sheng is incompetent and unable to confront him, so he can only shrink his defenses and barely protect himself.In a rage, Zhu Di sent Zhang Fu to Annan again in March.After Zhang Fu took office, he made a heavy hand. He first beheaded the governor Huang Zhong (the captain of the "death squad" who took the lead in the battle of Duobang) who had been weak in the battle before. In the case of large warships, a small boat commando team was formed to smash the Annan rebel navy, capture 400 enemy ships, and conquer Chen Jikuo's old nest Ngee'an.In December of the 11th year of Yongle, Zhang Fu and Mu Sheng joined forces and fought a decisive battle with Chen Jikuo in today's Aizijiang border between Vietnam and Laos.Chen Jikuo used 8,000 war elephants to attack the Ming army.Zhang Fu was resourceful and ordered the Ming army's sharp archers to aim, "one arrow to shoot the elephant slave, and two arrows to shoot the elephant's trunk".After casting a net to search and arrest, his whole family was finally captured alive in Mengji, Laos in January of the twelfth year of Yongle, and the Annan Jianding Rebellion that had lasted for several years was completely put down.After successfully suppressing the chaos, Zhang Fu escorted Chen Jikuo's family back to Beijing.Zhu Di ordered Li Bin, the former deputy commander of Jiaozhi, to replace Zhang Fu and supervise An Nan. The reason why Zhang Fu was transferred back after repeatedly suppressing the rebellion was that at this time Zhu Di's main energy was still on the Northern Expedition to Mongolia.After the 14th year of Yongle (AD 1416), the Ming court put moving the capital to Beijing on the agenda. In addition to vigorously building the imperial city of Beijing and dredging the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, various elite troops also moved northward one after another. For the southernmost Annan, it was beyond reach. .At this time in Annan, Zhu Di used improper personnel again, and sent his trusted eunuch Ma Qi to guard him, blackmailing Ma Qi, who was greedy for ink in the local area, causing complaints from the people of Annan.After Zhang Fu returned to the north, the small-scale resistance in various places in Annan never stopped.Li Bin, who succeeded Zhang Fu, was of good character, but cowardly and incompetent.In January of the 16th year of Yongle, Li Li, a local official inspector of Tsinghua Prefecture in Annan, convened a meeting of various ministries in Lanshan, and once again raised the banner of rebelling against the Ming Dynasty. ". Regarding Li Li, there are different evaluations in the historical materials of China and Vietnam. The historical materials of the Ming Dynasty call him a "rebel", while the historical materials of Vietnam call him a "national hero". Among all the leaders, he is the most talented, the most popular, and the person with the best character.Li Qi, a famous minister of the Yongle era who had been an envoy to Annan many times, praised him in his memorial to Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty, "respecting talents, showing compassion to the people, acting wisely and courageously, marching with strategy before moving, virtue and ability, all are Hu. (Hu family father and son), Chen (Jian Ding, Chen Ji Kuo) and other rebels are beyond the reach."Such a comment is indeed a hero.Looking at his resume, he was born as a commoner, but he was eager to learn since he was a child. He was originally the "General Jinwu" who followed Chen Jikuo's rebellion. , because of his meritorious service in helping the Ming army to destroy Chen Jikuo, he was named a native official of Qing'an.After Zhang Fu left, Ma Qi, the eunuch who "guarded the middle official", tyrannized and harmed the local people. Li Li's youngest daughter was also abducted by Ma Qi and sold to the palace as a slave.Under the deep hatred, in January of the 16th year of Yongle, Li Li joined forces with the "native officials" in Annan all over the country.In the Ming Dynasty, Li Bin, the southern governor, was incompetent, and the eunuch Ma Qi, who was in charge of guarding the city, bought jewelry arbitrarily, which aroused the local people to rebel. The stronger the suppression.When the news spread to the capital, Zhang Fu was assisting Zhu Di in planning to continue the Northern Expedition to Mongolia, and he really couldn't get away. In addition, the eunuch Ma Qi was deceiving others, so Zhu Di ordered Li Bin to "conquer and punish".Poor Li Bin, in the next few years he was defeated by Li Li several times by strange tactics, and lost countless soldiers. He "died of fear" in Yongle for twenty years.The reason why the Ming Dynasty did not mobilize troops to quell the rebellion as quickly as in the past in recent years is because the "Tang Saier Uprising in Qingzhou, Shandong" was happening in the Ming Dynasty at this time, and coupled with the "strategic focus" of using troops in Mongolia, the third-line battle was beyond its capabilities. After Li Bin "sacrificed at his job" in the 20th year of Yongle, Zhu Di sent elite soldiers, led by Rong Changbo Chen Zhi to march south. to Laos for help.Then the Ming army fought with the Vietnamese and Lao coalition forces in Nongbali, Laos. The Ming army dispatched heavy artillery bombardment and "broke it" and killed more than 15,000 people. The king of Laos was frightened and immediately asked the Ming army for peace, and He promised to hand over Li Li, but Li Li escaped first and hid in the Ole Mountains in Vietnam.Chen Zhicai was finally inferior to Zhang Fu. In the following two years, he repeatedly encircled and suppressed, but to no avail, and the two sides fell into a stalemate again.Zhu Di died of illness in the 22nd year of Yongle. Ming Renzong Zhu Gaochi, who came to the throne, intended to "peacefully resolve" and sent someone to canonize Li Li as the prefect of Tsinghua.A year later, Ming Xuanzong Zhu Zhanji, who succeeded to the throne, dispatched elite soldiers to replace Chen Zhi, who had fought hard here for many years, and appointed Chengshan Hou Wangtong as the commander in charge.In February of the first year of Xuande, Wang Tong went to suppress Leshan, Russia, and was ambushed by Li Shan of the Li Li Ministry, losing 5,000 people. Chen Qia, the inspector of Jiaozhi, died in battle.This small defeat frightened Wang Tong, and he negotiated peace with Li Li privately.Facing successive setbacks, Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty reassigned Marquis Liu of Anyuan as commander-in-chief. Together with Mu Sheng, a veteran general who had conquered Annan, he marched in two routes from Guangxi and Yunnan, and raised a 70,000-strong army to conquer Annan.But the same "old general of the King of Yan" Liu Sheng's talent is far behind Zhang Fu. In September of the second year of Xuande, Liu Sheng was surrounded by Li Li in the Battle of Daomapo, losing more than 10,000 people, and he himself was killed. The governor Cui Ju and the minister of the Ministry of Industry Huang Fu rectified the remnant soldiers and continued to march. They were defeated again, and almost the whole army was wiped out. Both of them were captured.It is worth mentioning that Huang Fu has served as the magistrate in various places in Annan many times before. He is an honest official, loves the people like a son, and is deeply loved by the people. .This time Ming Xuanzong sent him back to Annan for the purpose of "attacking the heart". Unexpectedly, things backfired. After being captured, Huang Fu received a gift from Li Li. Your Excellency, how could I rebel?" In addition, Li Li also ordered preferential treatment for the captured Ming army officers and soldiers and the family members of the Ming people. Gift sent abroad.Li Li was furious when he heard the news, beheaded 8 of his own soldiers, and said, "What is the difference between your actions and the eunuchs of the Celestial Dynasty (Ming Dynasty)?"The "father-in-law" of the Ming Dynasty has become a "negative model" for the Vietnamese army and civilians, which shows the depth of Ma Qi's harm to Annan.Under various "good deeds", the Ming army failed to "attack the heart", but was "attacked". The soldiers of the Ming army stationed in various places in Annan "fugitive four out of ten."But Mu Sheng, who was ordered to march from Yunnan, learned of Liu Sheng's defeat, and fled without fighting.Wang Tong, who previously negotiated peace with Li Li privately, was defeated in a row at this time, and only 20,000 remnants remained. Together with tens of thousands of family members of the Ming army, they were besieged by Li Li's heavy troops in Dongdu (now Hanoi, Vietnam).So far, Annan's situation has been out of hand. With all kinds of desperation, the Ming Dynasty had no choice but to repeat the old story, reconsidering the policy of "canonizing Annan" that Yang Shiqi had always advocated. Xia Yuanji, Minister of the Ministry of Households, and Zhang Fu, the British Duke, desperately opposed it. Zhang Fu personally invited Ying, and invited 100,000 troops , vowed to flatten Li Li within a year.But in the past 20 years, Annan's tug-of-war of "surrender and rebellion" has made Ming Xuanzong's monarchs and officials tired. The words of the academician Yang Rong hit the nail on the head: "The safety of the country depends on the north, not the south", which finally made Ming Xuanzong go down. Abandon Annan's determination.In October of that year, Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty sent Li Qi, the servant of the Ministry of Rites (that is, the one who went to Annan many times in the Yongle era) as an envoy, to Annan to announce the pardon of Li's crimes, and canonized Chen Hao, the clan of the original Chen Dynasty supported by Li Li, as his envoy. King Annan.Prior to this, Wang Tong, who was besieged in the Eastern Capital, had negotiated a peace with Li Li privately. After receiving the promise of no further invasion, Li Li released all the 20,000 Ming troops who were besieged in Annan.After that, Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty officially abandoned Annan, abolished the three divisions established in Annan by the Ming Dynasty, and all civil and military officials at all levels in Annan, troops from various towns, and family members of the people in the Ming Dynasty withdrew a total of 83,000 people.A year later, Chen Hao died, and Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming Dynasty followed suit and ordered Li Li to "administrate Annan state affairs".During the period of Li Li's "authorization of Annan state affairs", he imitated the Chinese system to recruit scholars, promoted Confucianism, and learned Zhu Yuanzhang's "land reclamation order" and "military settlement system" to recuperate and develop production.In the first year of Ming Yingzong's orthodoxy, Li Li died of illness, and his son Li Yuanlong was officially canonized by Ming Yingzong as "King of Annan". This is the history of the Vietnamese Li Dynasty.Afterwards, although the two countries had conflicts again during the Jiajing period, peaceful co-existence eventually became the mainstream.