Chapter 50 Chapter 47 Industry

The three of agriculture, industry and commerce are collectively called industry, and among the three, agriculture is the most important.There must be agriculture, and then the skills of business and industry can be obtained and applied.In the past in China, agriculture was called the main industry, and industry and commerce was the last industry. If you remove the contempt for industry and commerce, it is almost regarded as the meaning of profit sharing.Therefore, the development of agriculture is really an epoch-making progress for mankind.With agriculture, human food can be expanded without limit, and the increase of population is unlimited.Humans must settle.All material civilization has a foundation.Spiritual culture gradually developed.At this point in human beings, there is only a lot of remaining property, which has become the target of plunder.Labor has also become more precious, wars between each other have become more frequent since then, and the organization of society has become more complicated.Civilizations in the world have their origins in a few particularly fertile locations.A more accurate history also begins from this point on.This has a very deep relationship with agriculture, and China is one of them.

Before the beginning of agriculture, the stage of hunting was very common.In Chapter Thirty-Seven, it has been mentioned.Fishermen and hunters regard the land they live in as either animal husbandry or farming.In ancient China, it seems that farming started from fishing and hunting.The legendary Three Emperors: the Suiren family drilled wood to make fire, and taught the people cooked food to avoid the smell of fish and hurt their stomachs. They were obviously chiefs in the fishing and hunting era.Fuxi is also a blood sacrifice.Huang Fumi's "Emperor's Century" said that "sacrifices are taken for the kitchen" (quoted in "Book of Rites·Yue Lingshu"), which is really a literal meaning. "Baihu Tongyi · Hao Pian" says: "Follow down and transform it, so it is called Fuxi", then the word Xi and the word Hua are synonymous, and what is praised is its virtue.As for his livelihood at that time, "Yi Xici Zhuan" clearly states that he "fished in the fields for nets and knuckles", and there is no doubt that he was a chief in the era of fishing and hunting.Fuxi was followed by Shennong. "Cut wood to make pears, rub wood to make lei", officially entered the agricultural era, and the history of Chinese civilization began from then on.After the three emperors, there are five emperors.Zhuanxu and Diku have very few deeds that can be tested.The Yellow Emperor "taught bears, 罴, pi, xiu, and tigers" to fight Shennong, and seemed to be the chief of nomadic tribes.However, this is just an absurd legend. "The Chronicles of the Five Emperors" also mentions its "five kinds of arts", and apart from this, there is absolutely no evidence that the Yellow Emperor was a nomad. "Yao Dian" has the article of Ming Xihe "the calendar resembles the sun, moon, and stars, and respectfully teaches the people's time". The "Yao Dian" is certainly written by later generations, and it is not the record of the official historian at that time.Then what people do can't be said to be completely groundless.The ancestors of Yin and Zhou were roughly at the same time as Yao and Shun.The "Shengmin" and "Gongliu" in the book are the stories of the Zhou people's own ancestors, so it should not be entirely false. "Wuyi" in "Book of Books" is the words of Duke Zhou's commandment to become king, and it must be more credible to describe the history of Yin and Zhou Dynasties. "Wu Yi" describes Yin's ancestor Jia Yun: "In Zu Jia, the unrighteousness was only the king, and he was a villain in the past. When he ascended the throne, I knew the base of the villain." (Ancestor Jia is actually Taijia. "Injustice is only King, used to be a villain", referring to the matter that he was released by Yi Yin. Gao Zongyun said: "The old labor is outside, and he is a villain." It is obvious that he is a virtuous king in the agricultural era.Not to mention the ancestors of Zhou, such as Taiwang, Wangji, and Wenwang.The records in the ancient books are so sincere that one cannot believe them.However, looking at it as a whole, since the Five Emperors, social organization and political struggle must be accompanied by a higher level of civilization, rather than that of nomadic or fishing and hunting tribes.However, since Shennong, my country has long been a nation with developed agriculture.Although it is difficult to determine the age of ancient history, Mencius said: "From Yao and Shun to Tang, it is more than five hundred years old. From Tang to King Wen, it is more than five hundred years old. From King Wen to Confucius, it is more than five hundred years old." ") and Han Feizi's so-called Yin Zhou was more than 700 years old, and Yu Xia was more than 2,000 years old ("Xian Xue Pian"); Le Yi's "Reporting to King Yan Hui" called "receiving 800-year-old livestock accumulation" (that is, since the founding of the Zhou Dynasty in Qi Dynasty, As far as it was broken by King Zhao), they are roughly consistent, and they are definitely not fabricated.However, from Yao and Shun to the weekend, it should be nearly two thousand years.From the unification of the world by Qin Shihuang to the era of the Republic of China, there is a gap of 2132 years.Since Yao and Shun traced the development of agriculture, it must have been about a thousand years ago.The development of agriculture in our country was always five thousand years ago.

How did China's agriculture evolve?In a word, it is said: From rough farming to intensive farming.In ancient times, there was the law of Yuantian.Yuantian means changing fields.According to "Gongyang" Xuan Gong's fifteenth year, He's "Notes", it is because the land has good and evil, "Fat and rich cannot be alone, and Qiao is indeed not alone", so "changing masters every three years and easy living".According to "Zhou Guan" Da Situ: Zetian has difficulty, one easy, and then easy.Land that is not easy can be planted every year.In a changing land, one year of planting must be left fallow for one year.No matter how easy the land is, one year of planting will take two years of fallow.When granting land: a land that is not easy, a family will be given 100 mu.For one change of land, two hundred acres will be given.No matter how easy the land is, give three hundred acres.The fields in ancient times were certainly smaller than today.However, one man with one hundred mu is actually far larger than today's farmers.As for its achievements, according to "Mencius" ("Wanzhang Part II") and "Book of Rites King System": the upper farmer eats nine people, the second eats eight people, the second eats seven people, the second eats six people, and the next one eats six people. The farmer eats five people.Compared with the present, it is not necessarily good, and it can be seen that its farming method is not as good as that of today's people.In the Han Dynasty, there was a great farmer Zhao Guo, who was able to provide the method of replacing land.Divide one mu into three pots and plant seeds in them.The high place beyond the Zong is called Long.After the seedlings grow leaves, we must diligently remove the weeds on the ridge, so the soil on the ridge should be poured down to make it adhere to the roots of the seedlings.Do it gradually in this way, and in the heat of summer, it will "be exhausted and have deep roots" and be able to "endure wind and drought".Teng and Long are replaced every year, so they are called Daitian (see "Hanshu Shidaizhi").Later, there was the law of district field.The field is divided into pieces, which are called districts.Plant a district apart.Its weeding and decaying soil are also the same as Daitian. "Qi Min Yao Shu" (see below) is very well known.People who talked about agriculture in later generations also praised its method.However, according to those who study agriculture in modern times: "The method of Daitian district field is nothing more than the fact that there are few people who cultivate it, and the cultivation is intensive. The farming in the south of the Yangtze River in modern times is not much more diligent than what the ancients called Daitian district field. The fields are never rested, and the strength of the land is never exhausted. Therefore, there must be spirit in the method of fertilizing and replacing the grains planted." All these are the natural progress of agriculture.To sum up: There are large-scale and small-scale farming in agriculture.The advantages of the large-scale farming system lie in the economy of capital, the use of machinery, and the proper distribution of labor.The advantage of the small-scale farming system is that people can do their best and the land can do its best.Therefore, as far as a person's labor is concerned, no matter how much he earns, it is the advantage of the large-scale farming system.With regard to the same area of ​​land, regardless of the amount of income, the small peasant system will win.The skill of Chinese farmers is second to none in the small farming system.It's all a natural evolution over time.

There are three obstacles to the evolution of Chinese agriculture: (1) There are too few people who pay attention to agriculture.Even if there is, it is isolated from the peasants, and knowledge cannot be put into practical use.In ancient times, there were many officials who taught crops.For example, Da Situ in "Zhou Guan" "distinguishes ten and two kinds of things and knows their species".Si Jia, "To inspect the crops in the country and the fields, and to identify the species of scorpion. Know its name and its suitable place, and hang it in Yilu for the law."These things are not found in later generations.According to Li Zhaoluo's "Fengtai County Chronicles", the average land cultivated by people in Fengtai County is 16 mu per person.Poverty is extremely poor, often not enough for the capital, and in a famine year, there will be no food or clothing.There was a man named Zheng Nianzu in the county who hired a Yanzhou native.Ask him: How much garden can you plant?He said two acres, but also to hire a person to help.How much fertilizer should he use?He said that the fertilizer for one mu of field was worth two thousand copper coins.The farmers on the wall laughed and said: I planted ten acres of land, and only spent one thousand copper coins on fertilizer. The results of the harvest are often not enough for the cost?Zheng Nianzu was also skeptical about this Yanzhou native.Let's try it according to his words, because of the hard work and heavy fertilization, other people's crops are not mature, but his crops are mature first, and they grow very well.Be the first to enter the market and make a lot of profits.When other people's fruits and vegetables are on the market, he sells them together, and all he gets is a profit.Based on this example, Li Zhaoluo really wanted to recruit farmers in the south of the Yangtze River as agricultural teachers to develop paddy fields.This is just an example.I don't know how many other situations like this.Letting farmers learn from each other can make great progress in agriculture, let alone benefiting from scholar-bureaucrats?What's more, let the scholar-officials and the peasants learn from each other and complement each other with academic experience? (2) In ancient times, the land was publicly owned, so the ditches, rice paddies, etc., were well organized.Not so in later generations.The land became privately owned and divided inch by inch.All floods, droughts, storage and drainage, etc. always cost a part of the land, who is willing to sacrifice?The root of all planning of public utilities is the planning of public property.Therefore, in the world of public ownership of land, there is no need to talk about local self-government, but self-government is all-encompassing.Now that the land is privately owned, public affairs are gone.If there are a few events that cannot be held without a union, there will be some conflicts between public interest and private interest.As a result, the public welfare measures are inherently non-existent, and there is no such thing as a flourishing one; and the things that violate the public welfare, and the sunrise is endless.Such as deforestation, damage to dikes, and blocked ditches are all.And the farmland suffered greatly.The most notable one is water conservancy. (3) Since the land is privately owned, who does not love its private property?But the peasants are willing to do their best only if they have more than enough to look up to, and the hard-working income can be owned by them.If it is full and unobtainable, and occasionally has a surplus, it will be exploited by the powerful, and the people will not steal it?However, feudal forces and usury's plundering and plundering are exactly the opposite of this principle.This is also a fatal injury to farmland.Therefore, agriculture has its evolutionary as well as its regressive aspects.Advance and retreat cancel each other out, thus becoming the current situation.

The way out for China's current agriculture is to implement the large-scale farming system.But to implement the large-scale farming system, you must first have the tools used by the large-scale farming system.In the spring of the 17th year of the Republic of China, Markevich, the manager of the Russian state farm, had hundreds of unused machine plows. He called the farmers in the nearby villages and promised to lease them for use on the condition that they owned all the land and cultivated it together.The farmers who joined at that time had a total of more than 9,000 mu of arable land.In autumn, it increased to more than 24,000 mu.The matter was heard by the Communist Party, so they added machine plows and built a power field using machine plows.By next year, the law will be implemented throughout the country.It is the origin of collective farms in Soviet Russia (according to Zhang Junmai's "Soviet Russia under Stalin's Rule". Rebirth Magazine).Talking about things in the world is not true.He spoke in a low voice, and after talking for a long time, people still didn't believe it.After actual actions, the pros and cons are more obvious, so there is no need to talk about it.Common arguments say that peasants are the most stubborn and conservative.Actually it's the life of a farmer that makes it so.Now is the machine age.Using old-fashioned utensils is by no means enough to fight against it.And the majority of farmers in the country, because of their livelihood, stay in the selfish thought of the private system, which is also an obstacle to cultural progress.The method of probation, relying solely on empty words to enlighten people, is useless.Changes in life lead to changes in thoughts; changes in production methods change lives. "Min Kong Yi", the manufacture of farming machinery, is the way to eliminate farmers' prejudices.It is not necessary to wait until the peasants are privatized before the machinery can be used.

China's agronomy, the oldest, is naturally the farmhouse in the "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi".The agricultural books of the pre-Qin period that it recorded no longer exist today.The theory of pre-Qin peasants survives today, only "Di Yuan" in "Guan Zi", and "Ren Di", "Bian Tu", and "Shen Shi" in "Lu Shi Chun Qiu".The books written by farmers in the Han Dynasty are also lost.Among the quotations from various schools, the books of Fansheng are the most.According to "Zhou Guan" Cao Renshu, this is the best agricultural book in the Han Dynasty, and I don't know whether it is true or not.Among the works written by the ancients and handed down to the present, Wei Jia Sixie's "Qi Min Yao Shu" is the earliest.The official masterpieces of later generations are like "Nongsang Jiyao" in the Yuan Dynasty and "Shoushi Tongkao" in the Qing Dynasty; the private masterpieces are like "Nongshu" by Yuan Wangzhen; They are all in the farmhouse of Zibu.This agricultural book covers a wide range.In addition to planting, sericulture, apples, trees, medicinal herbs, breeding animals, etc. are all included.Land system, persuasion, and famine relief methods are also discussed. There are also tea classics, wine history, recipes, flower books, Xiangniu Jing, Xiangma Jing, etc. The previous generation was also attached to the peasant family, and the bibliography of the Qing Siku was changed into the book catalog kind.The book of veterinary medicine belongs to Zibu physicians.These are all related to agriculture.The old planting methods may not all be applicable today.However, those who want to study agricultural history must read it.

The industry of sericulture originated from Lei Zu, the concubine of the Yellow Emperor Yuan, who wrote the "Huainan Silkworm Classic" (quoted in "Nongzheng Quanshu"), which is not credible. "Yi Xi Ci Zhuan" said: "Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun hang down their clothes and rule the world." , so the clouds hang down on the clothes." Also close to the meeting.However, sericulture in our country developed very early.Mencius said: "For a house with five acres, there are mulberry trees, and those who are seventy can wear silk." ("Liang Huiwang Part 1") has long been a common occupation for peasant women.In ancient times, sericulture flourished in the north.There are many places where sericulture is mentioned in the book. "Yu Gong" Yanzhou said that mulberry soil is both silkworms, and Qingzhou said Jue 篚檿si.The mulberry is the mountain mulberry, which is now the wild silk.Qi Wan and Lu Jin were the most famous in the Han Dynasty.The currencies of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty all used cloth and silk.The blending method of the Tang Dynasty also included silk and linen.In the Yuan Dynasty, there were also Wuhusi and Erhusi.It can be seen that the sericulture industry in the north was not sluggish in the Yuan Dynasty, but since the Ming Dynasty, its benefits have gradually been limited to the southeast.Tang Zhen's "Qianshu" said: "The benefit of sericulture is that the north does not exceed the Song Dynasty, the south does not exceed Zhejiang, the west does not reach the lake, and the east does not reach the sea, but it is only a thousand miles away. Outside, they live in neighbors, separated by a bank without mulberry (This is speaking in terms of ups and downs. It does not mean that there is absolutely nothing, and you cannot stick to it). It is even the laziness of the people." Probably Chinese culture is uneven in different places, and the peasants are ignorant, and they will only follow the usual habits.It is the same for scholars and businessmen.So all over the country, the customs are very different.Said: "Wang Hong of Huayin wrote a proposal, thinking that the price of cloth and silk in Yan'an is several times more expensive than that of Xi'an." He also quoted "Salt and Iron Theory" and said: "The frontier people do not have the benefit of mulberry and hemp, and they rely on Chinese silk for their clothes. Don’t release the brown in summer, and don’t leave the cave in winter.” Cui Shi’s "Political Theory" said: "The former servant was the prefect of Wuyuan, and the local customs don’t know the achievements. The grass lying in it in winter. If you see officials, they are covered with grass, which makes your nose sore. Gu said: "Most people in Datong are like this today. Women wear paper hakamas when they grow grass." It can be seen that there are many places where the barren situation is the same as in ancient and modern times.In such situations, people in the past often wanted to use remedial methods, and officials who were responsible were sometimes able to do so.For example, during the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, Chen Hongmou was the governor of Shaanxi.He once set up silkworm halls and weaving bureaus in Xi'an, Sanyuan, and Fengxiang, and recruited southern mechanics as teachers.He also taught the people to grow mulberries.Mulberry leaves and cocoon silk are all allowed to be bought by the government, so that the people can benefit from each other, and they can actively engage in it, which is one example.But it cannot be universal.In the future, the transportation will be convenient and the circulation of capital will spread all over the poor and remote areas. This situation will gradually change.

Lin Zheng: It will get worse as it goes to later generations.The ancient mountains and forests were originally public, and there were certain rules for their use. For example, "The Book of Rites · Wang Zhi" said that "the grass and trees fall yellow, and then enter the mountains and forests".Or set up officials to manage, such as Lin Heng in "Zhou Guan".In ancient times, all countries stood side by side for the purpose of setting up dangers. There were also man-made forests on flat land, such as "Zhou Guan" for the purpose of setting up dangers.There will be no such things in later generations.There is very little afforestation, just relying on natural use.Therefore, the more it is opened up, the fewer trees there will be.For example, "Hanshu Geographical Records" said that Tianshui and Longxi have mountains and forests, and the people live in wooden houses.Another example is that in modern times, the timber in the interior comes from Sichuan, Jiangxi, and Guizhou, and the two provinces of Kyrgyzstan and Heibei are the largest forest areas in the country, and they are relatively less developed places.The lack of forest trees, on the positive side, is because the country does not know how to protect forests, let alone how to afforest.For example, Mei Zengliang in the Qing Dynasty wrote an article on "Shupen Civil Affairs".He said that when he was doing the job certificate for Dong Wenke, the governor of Anhui, he read his memorials and saw that he asked the shed people to open the mountain. Those who benefit the people and sue him are all addicted to the theory of geomantic omen, and even those who save a coffin of land with hundreds of mu of land, their words must not be listened to.Mei said: "Yu Lan said it was true." He also said: "When I came to Xuancheng, I asked the villagers, and they said: The unopened mountain has solid soil and rocks, dense grass and trees, and accumulated rotten leaves. Years, can be two or three inches. Rain every day, from trees to leaves, from leaves to earth and stones, through the cracks of the rocks drip into a spring, and the water below it is slow. And the water is slow, but the soil does not follow it. The water is slow, so the low fields cannot be affected It is a disaster; and there is no rain for half a month, and the high fields are still being irrigated by it. Today, the mountains are plowed with catties and axes, and the soil is thinned out with hoeing plows. The sand and stones will fall after the rain, and the situation will be different." Mei said: "Yu also heard that what he said was true." He also said: "It has been a long time since the inability to balance both interests and harms. From the former, you can put an end to the matter. From the latter, you can keep the benefits. If you don't lose your benefits, and don't As for Dong Gong's worries, I have no idea what to do." The right and wrong of this matter can be decided today.But at that time, I either didn't know it, or made a theory of violation.It can be seen that the ancients did not have a thorough understanding of the interests of the forest.Nature does not know how to protect it, let alone afforestation; although there have been laws and regulations such as the cultivation of mulberry and jujube by the people in the past dynasties, most of them have become written documents.On the negative side, the greatest damage is the destruction of the soldiers, and the above-mentioned indiscriminate logging during reclamation, and some even set fire to it, are also part of the reason.

Fishing, hunting and animal husbandry have not been regarded as the main business since the rise of agriculture.Among them, hunting was held on time because it was related to martial arts, and it was used for reading.Fishing, on the other hand, is regarded as a trivial matter, and is loved by the king.It can be seen from Zang Xibo's remonstrance to Guan Yu recorded in "Zuo Zhuan" in the fifth year of Yin Gong.Animal husbandry, such as the shepherds, cattlemen, filling people, etc. in "Zhou Guan", only raises for sacrifices.Only horses are related to military affairs and transportation, and have been regarded as the most important in the past dynasties. There are permanent "gardens" and "supervisors", and officials are set up to manage them in suitable places.Among them, such as Zhang Wansui in the Tang Dynasty, etc., also achieved quite a lot.However, there are not many who can do this.The above is an argument on the official side.As for the folk, the larger ones are always in the fringes.For example, "Historical Records · Huozhi Biography" said that in Tianshui, Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun, animal husbandry is the best in the world.Another example is the "Book of the Later Han·Ma Yuan Biography", which says that Yuan was exiled to the north, and because he kept livestock, he belonged to hundreds of families.Traveling between the Long and Han Dynasties, because they lived in the fields, there were thousands of cattle, horses and sheep, and tens of thousands of grains.It is impossible for folks in the interior to have large-scale animal husbandry.However, if you can raise livestock at home, there must be a lot of them.For example, "Historical Records Ping Zhun Shu" said that in the early years of Emperor Wu, "there were horses in all the streets and alleys, and there were groups of horses among the fields."In the sixth year of Yuanshuo, Wei Qing and Huo Qubing went out of the fortress, and privately carried from horses to 140,000 horses ("Hanshu Biography of the Huns". Yan Shigu's "Note": "Those who privately carry clothes and those who privately follow horses are not It is limited by the government."), which is really rare in later generations.Although private business is run by the people, it has a considerable relationship with the government's decrees.In the ninth year of Kaiyuan Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, he issued an edict: "Those who have horses in the world, the prefectures and counties will first use the mail to serve the army, and the households will be reunited to promote them. ".Yuan Shizu to Yuan twenty-three years, in June, including all road horses.For those who have horses in Semu, choose two out of three.The Han people were admitted to the government.Those who dare to hide and trade with each other will be punished. "Ming Shilu" states: In the first year of Yongle, in July, the Minister of the Ministry of War said: "It is better than hearing that the price of horses among the people is high, and the people are not allowed to own livestock. The list tells the world, listen to the soldiers and civilians, and don't ban livestock and horses." (According to the "Rizhilu·Mazheng" article) However, like the Han Dynasty, not only did there not be a ban on livestock and horses, but also those who had horses were reinstated (those who had a cart and a horse, and three people were rehabilitated, see "Shihuozhi"). Animal husbandry will naturally flourish.But this can only hide wealth among the people, and large-scale animal husbandry must be promoted in border areas. "Liao History Shihuo Zhi" describes the prosperity of animal husbandry in Taizu's time, "Including the rich, there are no more horses, and more than 10,000 horses are given to the falcon army, big and small."He also said: "Since Taizong and Xingzong, for two hundred years, the herds are as prosperous as one day. In the early years of Tianzuo, there were still tens of thousands of horses, and the number of horses was no less than a thousand." It's all like this, but it can't all have detailed records.The reasons for this are: (1) Due to the right time and place. (2) Also because the land has not yet been developed, there are many lands that can be used as pastures.Division should be based on geography.The lands of Mongolia, Xin, Qing, and Tibet were outside the previous dynasties or lineages, but now they are all in the state territory. How to revitalize them requires extreme efforts.

Fishing tax was not considered very important in the past dynasties, so there are few records about fishery in official history.However, common people in ancient times actually ate fish and turtles (see Chapter 49). "Historical Records: Biographies of Huozhi" said: Taigong was entrusted to Qi, the earth had brine, and the people were few. Taigong actually used fish and salt as a strategy to get rich.This may be an excuse for later generations, but during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the prosperity of Qi's fishing industry can be imagined. "Zuo Zhuan" in the third year of Zhao Gong, Yan Zi said that the Chen family gave generously to the country, "Fish, salt and clams are not added to the sea" (that is, they are not banned or taxed).Geng Shouchang of the Han Dynasty became a major farmer, and the sea rent was increased three times (see "Han Shu Shihuo Zhi").It can be seen that the fishing industry has flourished since ancient times.Such grand occasions have happened throughout the ages.However, "fishermen are residents of poor seas, deserted islands, rivers, and marshes, and let them live naturally. The ponds in the inland are for livestock and fish, one pond and one swamp, which are only for literati and scholars to hang around, and for poetry and wine. Therefore, from the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Ming Dynasty, there was no revolution at all, and no records can be seen." That's all (according to Li Shihao and Qu Ruoyun's "Chinese Fishery History", Commercial Press).However, counting the coastal areas, rivers and lakes, there are more than tens of millions of people who depend on it for a living?Organizing fishing companies, fishing with new methods, uniting fishermen, guiding and protecting them all started in the Qing season.The national government paid special attention to this.And the fishing tax was exempted, but the effect has not been significant.Within the territorial sea, it is always invaded by people.In the 26th year, after the Sino-Japanese War, the coast was mostly blocked, the fishing grounds were robbed, and the fishery was especially damaged.

Agriculture in a narrow sense, but refers to planting.In the broad sense, all methods of obtaining materials are included, and mining is undoubtedly a part of agriculture in the broad sense. "Guanzi Di Shu Pian" said: "The mountain of Gelu, where water flows out, gold follows it, and Chi You controls it, thinking of swords, armor, spears, and halberds." From then on, Chiyou took it and controlled it, thinking that the halberd of Yonghu and Ruige." Based on this, we can also imagine that the mining industry was just booming, and what was used was only the natural metal exposed on the surface of the earth.However, "Guanzi" also said: "On the top of the cinnabar, there is gold below; on the top of the stone, there is copper and gold; on the top of the mausoleum, there are lead, tin, red copper; on the top, there is iron. , the one who sees the glory of this mountain." Rong is the so-called ore seedlings today, and when he wrote the book "Guanzi", he already knew the method of inspecting ore seedlings.Since the invention of modern machines, both coal and iron have been important factors in production.In previous lives, iron was heavier than coal.In ancient times, because of technical limitations, copper was more important than iron.However, in ancient times, the use of copper, in addition to making weapons, was mostly used to make treasure tripods and other luxury items. Therefore, "Huainanzi·Ben Jingpian" said: "In the decline of the world, mountains and stones, gold and jade, clam mirages, and copper are sold. Iron, but everything does not grow.” He regards copper and iron as the same as gold, jade, and clam mirage (called pearl picking).However, as society evolves, ironware becomes more and more important. "Zuo Zhuan" in the eighteenth year of Xigong, "Bo Zheng started his dynasty in Chu. The son of Chu gave him gold. He regretted it. He made an alliance with him and said: There is no way to build soldiers." It can be seen that this is the weapon of the time, and the south is still the main profit.Before the later Han Dynasty, most weapons were made of copper (see "Rizhilu Copper").However, Yantie, the "Guanzi" book has been regarded as an important source of income for the country (see Chapter 44), and "Hanshu Geography" says that the custom in the south of the Yangtze River is still "fire farming and water farming".It can be seen that the agriculture in the south is far less developed than that in the north.The invention of mining in ancient times must have been south before north.That's why Chi You's corpse was used as a soldier.However, later on, the level of civilization in the south fell to that of the north, because of the slow progress in agriculture.The south is good at making copper soldiers, and the north attaches great importance to iron-cast agricultural implements, which can be represented.Although there is a discussion about state-run salt and iron in Guanzi, iron ore and smelting are still in private hands.Just look at the so-called "salt and iron" people in the Han Dynasty (the so-called salt and iron refers to those who run the salt and iron business), and they were extremely powerful, while the salt officials and iron officials left over from the pre-Qin period were dying and lifeless.It is still the same in later generations.There are very few mines opened by the state itself.Most of the mines opened by the people are metal mines.There are pearls in the South China Sea.Yuduo is from the Western Regions. Industry: In ancient times, simple was something everyone could do.For the more complicated ones, there are people who specialize in it.Such people, probably because of their close sex, have special skills.Those who inherited it later were either based on their social status or their sexual proximity. "Kaogongji" so-called "Those who know create things, those who are skillful describe them, keep them in the world, and call them work."Such expertise varies from tribe to tribe.In this tribe, it is a common thing that everyone can do, but in another tribe, it can become a specialized skill.Therefore, "Kao Gong Ji" said: "There is no pan in Guangdong, no letter in Yan, no hut in Qin, and no bow and chariot in Hu." Bo is its thing), Madam can make it.” Yan Zhihan, Qin Zhilu, and Hu Zhigong also said the same thing.Such a scale should have been passed down from the ancient public property tribes.The countries of later generations followed it, and they were Gongguan. There are two kinds of officials in "Kao Gong Ji": one is called a certain person, and the other is called a certain family.Calling a certain person should be a technical inheritance, not limited to the clan, but calling a certain clan is not the case.The rules of Gao Zeng's work were passed down by the ancients as a good talk.This is why (1) the ancients lived a peaceful life, and they didn't like to show off their odds and fight with ingenuity. (2) In ancient society, the scope was narrow, and all knowledge and skills were obtained from the same time, few people observed them, and many people obtained them from the legacy of the past, so the admiration for the ancients was particularly deep. (3) Those who go to the communal society to specialize in one thing become the state's workers and officials, and industry becomes a part of politics.Politics cannot abolish supervision and accountability, and supervision and accountability can only be based on the old style.The people who make the company follow the procedures in order to avoid mistakes ("Book of Rites Yueling" says: "The name of the work is used to test its success." That’s why there are hundreds of workers.” It can be seen that the supervision and responsibility of industry was strict in ancient times). (4) In the feudal era, people's lives were hierarchical and regulated.Compete for novelties, and both will be destroyed.Therefore, "Book of Rites·Yue Ling" says: "Don't use it as an obscene artifice to indulge your heart." : "Make strange skills and strange tools to kill those who doubt the public." This kind of system, future generations will definitely say that it hinders the progress of industry. The rest, (a) have a sense of injustice; (b) or chase each other regardless of financial resources, so that the standard of living in society is inevitably a luxury, which is of considerable value, and they have to know it.That is to say, it is wrong to argue that such a system hinders progress.why? The organization of society is secretly changing day by day, and the institutions established by man cannot correspond to it, and what is useful gradually becomes useless and is gradually destroyed.This is true in all aspects, and workers and officials are no exception. (1) The social situation has changed, but the workers and officials have not expanded, and the things created may not be enough for the people to use. (2) Or the folks have invented new tools, but the workers and officials still abide by the old rules, and the private business is gradually flourishing. (3) The feudal system was destroyed, the country and the family were destroyed, the institutions established may be abolished along with the country's destruction, and the technical personnel were also displaced.In this way, the ancient system of workers and officials was completely destroyed. "Historical Records·Huozhi Biography" said: "Using the poor to seek wealth, agriculture is not as good as industry, and industry is not as good as business"; "Hanshu Geography" records that there are only a few surviving officials in the Han Dynasty, all of which represent this fact. "Han Shu Xuandi Ji Zan" praised him for "rewards must be punished, comprehensive verification of names and facts", and "skilled craftsmen have rarely been able to match since Yuan Cheng."Chen Shou's "Shang Zhuge's Collection Table", also known as "tooling skills, the ultimate in things" ("Three Kingdoms Shuzhi Zhuge Liang Biography"), is actually just a part of the official system and official use, and the advancement and retreat of the vast social industry. , is irrelevant.In this era, where is the evolution of industry?Every time the world refers to a few particularly ingenious people and a few particularly strange tools in history, they refer to the evolution of industry, which is actually irrelevant.Gongshuzi thought that he could cut bamboo and wood, and he could fly for three days (see "Mozi Lumen", "Huainanzi Qisu Xun"). him.However, such as Zhang Heng of the Later Han Dynasty, Ma Jun of Cao Wei Dynasty, Zu Chongzhi of the Southern Qi Dynasty, and Guo Shoujing of the Yuan Dynasty (see the "Notes" on "Three Kingdoms Wei Zhi·Du Kui Biography" for Ma Jun's affairs, and see the biographies of other histories for the rest), their deeds are by no means Nonsense.Where are the things they invented?Those who worshiped the ancients said: "It has been lost. This is just the burden of future generations, not the ingenuity of the Chinese, which is not as good as the people of other countries." To make a history of the loss of Chinese academics." (See the former "Xinchao Magazine" published by Peking University) In fact, it is not the same thing.The development of a craft has its social conditions.The compass is recognized by the world as being invented by the Chinese.It was used to drive cars in ancient times, why not now?And where did the Jiri drum car go and measure the length of the route?Zhuge Liang improved the Liannu, and Ma Jun said: I can improve it again, but I never implemented it later. Even the wooden cow and horse invented by Zhuge Liang were lost soon.Even if he is not in the world of war, Zhuge Liang's mind may not be used for Liannu.If the battle between Wei and Shu had been more intense at that time, and the other forces had been more evenly balanced, and the victory and defeat had to be determined by the use of crossbows, the state of Wei might not have Ma Jun and not use it.After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, if there was a commercial need to transport millet from Bashu to Guanzhong, wooden oxen and horses would naturally be produced in large quantities and become a means of transportation in society.Otherwise, who will save it?In the same way: Why are the famous utensils of one era, such as Xuande and Chenghua in the Ming Dynasty, and Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty, gone now?These are all social conditions for industrial development.There is also the technical aspect, which cannot be developed alone.To make a thing, there must be things that are connected with each other.For example, if Gongshuzi uses bamboo and wood as his base, he can fly for three days, which is of course nonsense.When Wang Mang used soldiers, he recruited people with extraordinary skills.Some people say they can fly.Try it, take a big bird hen as two wings, fly hundreds of steps and fall (see "Hanshu · Wang Mang Biography"), but it is by no means nonsense, and the person is not a coincidence.If we were born now, we cannot say that we cannot invent airplanes.However, in those days, some of the various machines used in today's airplanes did not exist, so it is naturally impossible to create flying equipment out of thin air.Therefore, if the social conditions are not met, the development of technology does not follow a certain sequence, and inventions will not appear out of thin air.Even if it does appear, it is only a flash in the pan.It is just a superficial opinion to think that as long as there is freedom of consumption, there must be brave men under heavy rewards, and the craftsmanship will naturally continue to improve. After the destruction of the worker-official system, the situation of China's industry is roughly like this: rooted in the transportation situation, ordinary daily-use utensils are often combined in several places, forming a supply and demand area by itself.The method of manufacture and the raw materials used therein do not have to be the same among regions.Therefore, the items in each place have their own characteristics. (1) The intelligence of these workers is based on common practice. (2) Under the exchange system, the production of commodities is actually controlled by the market, and the views of merchants who specialize in sales are often outdated.Because the sales of old things are somewhat certain, but the new ones are not sure.Therefore, businessmen do not welcome new things, and workers have less opportunity for improvement. (3) The atmosphere in the society is also the majority of people who follow the old habits.So its progress is relatively slow.As for particularly famous industrial products, it is not uncommon for them to be marketed throughout the country.Or because of (1) the particularity of the natural property, the manufacture cannot be limited to the place. (2) Or due to the convenience of transportation, products produced in other places cannot compete with it. (3) It may also be limited to one place due to the spread of technology in history.Such as Hubi, Huimo, Hunan embroidery, etc., are one example. Modern new industries are mainly machine-made products.Since non-old handicrafts can compete with it.Running a new type of industry requires both talents and capital. Businessmen and entrepreneurs at the beginning of communication between China and foreign countries are not able to say this, and they must rely on official power to promote it.However, the government's advocacy is also unlawful.In the early years of Tongzhi, the establishment of manufacturing bureaus and shipyards were all for military reasons, not enough for industry.The Kaiping Coal Mine, the Gansu Wool Mill, the Hubei Iron Works, and the Spinning Mill, which were established after Guangxu, also had little success due to inappropriate management.Foreign goods are imported in abundance, and outsiders also want to set up factories in treaty ports to make use of my cheap labor and save transportation costs.Since the Xianfeng Wuwu and Gengshen two agreements, various countries have signed contracts with me successively, and often put forward this request.China has always insisted on not promising.It was only when Guangxu defeated Japan in the Jiawu period and signed the "Treaty of Shimonoseki" that it was forced to do so.The oppression suffered by our industry has deepened, and it has become even more difficult to struggle.However, China's people's wisdom gradually developed after the Sino-Japanese War, and the ability to manage itself also advanced accordingly.近数十年来，新兴的工业，亦非少数，惜乎兴起之初，未有通盘计划，而任企业之家，人自为战，大多数都偏于沿江沿海。二十六年，海。二十六年，战事起后，被破坏的，竟达百分之七十。这亦是一个很大的创伤。然因此而（一）内地的宝藏，获得开发，交通逐渐便利。 （二）全盘的企业，可获得一整个的计划，非复枝枝节节而为之。 （三）而政治上对于实业的保障，如关税壁垒等，亦将于战后获得一条出路。因祸而为福，转败而为功，就要看我们怎样尽力奋斗了。 商业当兴起时，和后来的情形，大不相同。《老子》说：“郅治之极，邻国相望，鸡犬之声相闻，民各甘其食，美其服，安其俗，乐其业，至老死不相往来。”这是古代各部族最初孤立的情形。到后来，文化逐渐进步，这种孤立状况，也就逐渐打破了。然此时的商人，并非各自将本求利，乃系为其部族做交易。部族是主人，商人只是夥友，盈亏都由部族担负，商人只是替公众服务而已。此时的生意，是很难做的。（一）我们所要的东西，哪一方面有？哪一方面价格低廉？（二）与人交换的东西，哪一方面要？哪一方面价格高昂？都非如后世的易于知道。（三）而重载往来，道途上且须负担危险。商人竭其智力，为公众服务，实在是很可敬佩的。而商人的才智，也特别高。如郑国的弦高，能却秦师，即其一证（《左传》僖公三十三年）。此等情形，直到东西周之世，还有留遗。《左传》昭公十六年，郑国的子产，对晋国的韩宣子说：“昔我先君桓公，与商人皆出自周。庸次比耦，以艾杀此地，斩之蓬蒿藜藿而共处之。”开国之初，所以要带着一个商人走，乃是因为草创之际，必要的物品，难免缺乏，庚财（见第四十一章）、乞籴，都是不可必得的。在这时候，就非有商人以济其穷不可了。卫为狄灭，文公立国之后，要注意于通商（《左传》闵公二年），亦同此理。此等商人，真正是消费者和生产者的朋友。然因社会组织的变迁，无形之中，却逐渐变做他们的敌人而不自知了。因为交换的日渐繁盛，各部族旧有的经济组织，遂不复合理，而逐渐的遭遇破坏。旧组织既破坏，而无新组织起而代之。人遂不复能更受社会的保障，其作业，亦非为社会而作，于是私产制度兴起了。在私产制度之下，各个人的生活，是要自己设法的。然必不能物物皆自为而后用之。要用他人所生产的东西，只有（一）掠夺和（二）交换两种方法。掠夺之法，是不可以久的。于是交易大盛。然此时的交易，非复如从前行之于团体与团体之间，而是行之于团体之内的。人人直接交易，未免不便，乃渐次产生居间的人。一方面买进，一方面卖出，遂成为现在的所谓商业。非交易不能生活，非藉居间的人不能交易，而商业遂隐操社会经济的机键。在私产制度之下，人人的损益，都是要自己打算的。各人尽量寻求自己的利益。而生产者要找消费者、消费者要找生产者极难，商人却处于可进可退的地位，得以最低价（只要生产者肯忍痛卖）买进，最高价（只要消费者能够忍痛买）卖出，生产者和消费者，都无如之何。所以在近代工业资本兴起以前，商人在社会上，始终是一个优胜的阶级。 商业初兴之时，只有现在所谓定期贸易。《易经·系辞传》说：神农氏“日中为市，致天下之民，聚天下之货，交易而退，各得其所”，就指示这一事实的。此等定期贸易，大约行之于农隙之时，收成之后。所以《书经·酒诰》说：农功既毕，“肇牵车牛远服贾”。《礼记·郊特牲》说：“四方年不顺成，八蜡不通”；“顺成之方，其蜡乃通”（蜡祭是行于十二月的。因此，举行定期贸易）。然不久，经济愈形进步，交易益见频繁，就有常年设肆的必要了。此等商肆，大者设于国中，即《考工记》所说“匠人营国，面朝后市”。小者则在野田墟落之间，随意陈列货物求售，此即《公羊》何《注》所谓“因井田而为市”（宣公十五年）。《孟子》所谓“有贱丈夫焉，必求龙断而登之”，亦即此类，其说已见第四十四章了。《管子·乘马篇》说：“聚者有市，无市则民乏。”可见商业和人民的关系，已密接而不可分离了。古代的大商人，国家管理之颇严，《管子·揆度篇》说：“百乘之国，中而立市，东西南北，度五十里。”千乘之国，万乘之国，也是如此。这是规定设市的地点的。《礼记·王制》列举许多不鬻于市的东西。如（一）圭璧金璋，（二）命服命车，（三）宗庙之器，（四）牺牲，（五）锦文珠玉成器，是所以维持等级制度的。（六）奸色乱正色，（七）衣服饮食，是所以矫正人民的生活规范的。（八）布帛精粗不中度，幅广狭不中量，（九）五谷不时，（十）果实未熟，（十一）木不中伐，（十二）禽兽鱼鳖不中杀，是所以维持社会的经济制度，并保障消费人的利益的。总之，商人的交易，受着干涉的地方很多。《周官》司市以下各官，则是所以维持市面上的秩序的。我们可想见，在封建制度之下，商人并不十分自由。封建政体破坏了，此等规则，虽然不能维持，但市总还有一定的区域。像现在通衢僻巷，到处可以自由设肆的事，是没有的。北魏胡灵后时，税入市者人一钱，即其明证。《唐书·百官志》说：“市皆建标筑土为候。凡市日，击鼓三百以会众，日入前七刻，击钲三百而散。”则市之聚集，仍有定期，更无论非市区了。现在设肆并无定地，交易亦无定时，这种情形，大约是唐中叶以后，逐渐兴起的。看宋朝人所著的《东京梦华录》（孟元老著）、《武林旧事》（周密著）等书可见。到这地步，零售商逐渐增多，商业和人民生活的关系，亦就更形密切了。 商业初兴时，所运销的，还多数是奢侈品，所以专与王公贵人为缘。子贡结驷连骑，束帛之币，以聘享诸侯（《史记·货殖列传》）。晁错说汉朝的商人，“交通王侯，力过吏势”（《汉书·食货志》），即由于此。此等商人，看似势力雄厚，其实和社会的关系，是比较浅的。其厕身民众之间，做屯积和贩卖的工作的，则看似低微，而其和社会的关系，反较密切。因为这才真正是社会经济的机键。至于古代的贱视商人，则（一）因封建时代的人，重视掠夺，而贱视平和的生产事业。（二）因当时的商业，多使贱人为之。如刁间收取桀黠奴，使之逐渔盐商贾之利是（《史记·货殖列传》）。此等风气，以两汉时代为最甚。后世社会阶级，渐渐平夷，轻视商人，亦就不如此之甚了。抑商则另是一事。轻商是贱视其人，抑商则敌视其业。因为古人视商业为末业，以为不能生利。又因其在社会上是剥削阶级，然抑商的政令，在事实上，并不能减削商人的势力。 国际间的贸易，自古即极兴盛。因为两国或两民族，地理不同，生产技术不同，其需要交易，实较同国同族人为尤甚。试观《史记·货殖列传》所载，凡和异国异族接境之处，商务无不兴盛（如天水、陇西、北地、上郡、巴、蜀、上谷至辽东等），便可知道。汉朝尚绝未知西域为何地，而邛竹杖、蜀布，即已远至其地，商人的辗转贩运，其能力亦可惊异了。《货殖传》又说：番禺为珠玑、瑇瑁、果、布之凑。这许多，都是后来和外洋互市的商品（布当即棉布），可知海路的商业，发达亦极早。中国和西域的交通，当分海、陆两路。以陆路论：《汉书·西域传》载杜钦谏止遣使报送罽宾使者的话，说得西域的路，阻碍危险，不可胜言，而其商人，竟能冒险而来。以海路论：《汉书·地理志》载中国人当时的海外航线，系自广东的徐闻出发。所经历的地方，虽难悉考，其终点黄支国，据近人所考证，即系印度的建志补罗（冯承钧《中国南洋交通史》上编第一章）。其后大秦王安敦，自日南徼外，遣使通中国，为中欧正式交通之始。两晋南北朝之世，中国虽然丧乱，然河西、交、广，都使用金银。当时的中国，是并不以金银为货币的，独此两地，金银获有货币的资格，即由于与外国通商之故。可见当中国丧乱时，中外的贸易，依然维持着。承平之世，特别如唐朝、元朝等，疆域扩张，声威远播之时，更不必说了。但此时所贩运的总带有奢侈品性质（如香药、宝货便是，参看第四十四章），对于普通人民的生活，关系并不深切。到近代产业革命以后，情形就全不相同了。