Chapter 48 Chapter 45 Military System

China's military system can be divided into eight phases. In the first period, in ancient times, there was a distinction between the conquering people and the conquered people.The conquered clan is all soldiers, while the conquered clan is not, it is a partial militia system. In the second period, the war became more intense and many troops were mobilized. People who had never served in the military also joined the military service. It was a military system for all. In the third period, when the world is unified, not only is it unnecessary for all to be soldiers, even if some people are soldiers, it is also felt that there is a surplus.Occasionally use soldiers, but for the sake of pity for the strength of the people, sinners and surrendered aliens are often used.Therefore, the people's negligence in military affairs led to the rebellion of foreign races who surrendered, which is the so-called five random chaos.However, in China in this era, because of chaos, the local government took power, and the central government could not control it, so the so-called state and county wars occurred.

In the fourth period, at the end of the five chaos in China, the foreign races gradually assimilated with China, the number of people decreased, and the fighting was fierce. As a last resort, the Han people were used as soldiers.And because of financial difficulties, he had to be asked to farm for self-support.Then a kind of partial militia system emerged, which was the government soldiers of Zhou, Sui and Tang. In the fifth issue, in a world of peace, military strength cannot but be corrupted.The system of government soldiers was thus abolished.But at that time, there were many troubles on the frontier, so the so-called soldiers of the feudal town occurred.Hence, causing civil unrest.After the civil strife, vassals and towns spread all over the mainland, and the Tang Dynasty was divided because of it.

In the sixth period, after the Song Dynasty inherited the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, they tried their best to centralize power in the central government.The central government must have a strong standing army.He also looked at the economic benefits of breaking the division of military and civilian industries.So there is an extreme recruitment system. In the seventh period, the Yuan Dynasty ruled the Central Plains with a foreign race. Naturally, there were other measures in terms of military affairs.However, the Ming Dynasty followed suit.As a result, it eventually failed due to stagnation.

In the eighth period, the Qing Dynasty was also ruled by a foreign race, but soon its military strength was corrupted.In the middle period, due to civil strife, a stronger army was once established.However, when the current situation changes drastically, this type of army is more than enough to cope with the old situation, but not enough to follow the new era.Repeated defeats abroad, but domestic military discipline has been bad for a long time, which led to civil strife since the late Qing Dynasty.Until recently, due to the oppression of external forces, it embarked on a new path that has never been seen in ancient times.

The above uses the bird's-eye view method to reveal an outline.The following will be explained paragraph by paragraph. The class system in the first period can be understood by reading Chapters 40 and 44.People in the past all said that in ancient times, soldiers were combined with agriculture, and soldiers were combined with agriculture, that is, soldiers and farmers were united. After the wells were abolished, soldiers and farmers began to divide. This is a major misunderstanding.Combining soldiers in agriculture means using agricultural weapons as weapons. See "Six Secret Teachings: Agricultural Weapons" for an explanation.Ancient weapons were made of copper, and agricultural implements were made of iron.The weapons are all hidden in the public house, and they are issued just before the battle (the so-called conferment of armor and conferment of soldiers), and they can only be used by the regular army. Soldiers such as the country guard regiment cannot be given.However, when the enemy soldiers come, they cannot really set up a stile to defend themselves.So it is like the saying in "Six Secret Teachings", teach them to use a certain kind of agricultural implement as a certain kind of weapon.In ancient times, people who served as soldiers were called soldiers, and they were combined with soldiers in agriculture. How can it be interpreted as the unity of soldiers and farmers?There is a passage in Jiang Yong's "Qun Jing Su Yi" that refute this statement.He cites "Guanzi" as "Shenguo Wubi", "Shenguo", that is, the so-called "governing the country" as twenty-one townships, six townships for industry and commerce, fifteen townships for scholars, and five townships for Gonghe Gaozi and Guozi.Wu Bi, that is, the thirty families are the towns, the ten towns are the pawns, the ten pawns are the townships, the three townships are the counties, and the ten counties are the genus, so they are farmers .He also cited the tigers in Yangyang to cause chaos, Renchen abstained from the capital car, and ordered Guisi to arrive (according to "Zuo Zhuan" Dinggong eight years).To prove that the soldiers are often near the capital.It can be described as very precise.According to "Zhou Guan·Xia Gong·Xu Guan": the king's six armies, the big country's three armies, the second country's second army, and the small country's first army. In "Big Situ", the five families are compared, the five ratios are the village, the four villages are the clan, the five clans are the party, the five parties are the states, and the five states are the townships; Two are pawns, five pawns are brigades, five brigades are divisions, and five divisions are troops, so the six armies are suitable for going out of the six townships.In addition to Liuxiang, there is Liusui. Zheng Zheng's "Notes" said: Sui's military law is like that of Liuxiang.In fact, the township lists the military law, there is no land system, so Chen Tian system, there is no military law, Zheng's "Notes" are wrong (it is said that Zhu Dashao's "Seeking Truth from Real Facts" and "Sima Fa Fei Zhou System Theory").Liuxiang sent troops, but Liusui failed, which is also a proof that the soldiers are in the country.There is no explanation for this except that the people who conquered lived in the country and the people who were conquered lived in the wild.Or is it possible that in ancient countries, there were classes that conquered and were conquered?That is to say, everyone has this class, and they can all use this method of governance. Is it the same?Little do we know that (1) there were more than a thousand ancient kingdoms, and we have a little idea of ​​their situation, but only a few dozen, how can we know that they are all the same? (2) What's more, systems can be imitated from each other.In the world, there is a country that is militaristic, that is, a country that has always been peaceful, and it has to use military organizations to respond. Since it uses military organizations, its systems can naturally be similar.Therefore, even if they are not the conquered clan, the military leaders and warriors among them can gradually separate from the people and take the same position as the conquered clan. (3) Moreover, soldiers must be on the defensive, and if they want to be on the defensive, they have to take risks; and agriculture has to develop on the plains; if they have the same environment, they can have the same system. (4) What's more, the more than ten countries we know, if we look for their roots, are all the same or very close tribes, so why is it that their cultures are the same?Therefore, there is no doubt that ancient times were part of the militia system.

In ancient countries, the number of soldiers was not very large.When it comes to the organization of the ancient army, everyone quotes "Zhou Guan".However, the text of "Zhou Guan" is the only complete one in the group of scriptures.In fact, the system of "Zhou Guan" is inconsistent with other books.According to the "Book of Songs Lu Song": "30,000 public disciples," then 10,000 people form an army. "Guanzi·Xiao Kuang Pian" says that the method of army organization is just like this (five men make an army, fifty people make a small army, two hundred people make a pawn, two thousand people make a brigade, and ten thousand people make an army). "Baihu Tongyi Three Armies Chapter" said: "Although there are ten thousand people, they are still modest and consider themselves insufficient, so an additional two thousand people are added", and one army is based on ten thousand people. "Shuowen" uses 4,000 people as an army, and it is said that after adding 2,000 people, it is established. "Zhuliang" in the eleventh year of Xianggong, "the ancients have six divisions of the son of heaven, and one army of the princes" (the word for army is synonymous with the word for division. Change its literal to avoid repetition. Ancient books have this grammar), and one division should be worth two thousand people. "Gongyang" Yingong five years, "Note": "Two thousand and five hundred people are called teachers, six teachers of the Son of Heaven, two teachers of Fang Bo, and one teacher of princes", the word "five hundred" must be said by later generations according to "Zhou Guan" Inflated.However, the military organization mentioned by the ancient writers has expanded compared with the modern writers, and the number has increased.This is also a proof that the modern writers say that the system represents an earlier period, and the ancient writers say that it represents a later period.Some people who serve as soldiers live in dangerous mountainous lands, and they live in the land of borders, and the laws described in "Sima Law" are all based on the system of well fields. In this way, the obligation of being a soldier extends to All over the country. The theory of "Sima Fa" has already been seen in Chapter 44, so I will not quote it here.According to the "Sima Law", the final ten is the same, the same square is a hundred miles, the same ten is a seal, and the ten is a gill, and a gill is a thousand miles.As mentioned in the previous article: A letter should be worth a thousand chariots, ten thousand soldiers, and twenty thousand apprentices;The latter one said: together for a hundred miles, ten thousand wells were sealed, except for mountains, rivers, sinkholes, cities, towns, gardens, and art roads, 6,400 wells were designated for Fu, so there were four hundred soldiers and horses, and hundreds of chariots. .There are four thousand horses and one thousand chariots in one letter.There are 40,000 military horses and 10,000 military chariots in one base.See "Han Shu Criminal Law".If the number of people is counted, it is 7,500 together, 75,000 in one letter, and 750,000 in one piece. "Historical Records Zhou Benji" said: In the battle of Muye, Zhou sent 700,000 people to reject King Wu; ", all of which are based on this. The theory of "Sima Law" is a fiction of solid system scholars, and it must be similar to the actual system.In the Spring and Autumn Period, the number of troops used by various countries was no more than tens of thousands.By the time of the Warring States period, they were demoted and cut down, and tens of thousands were moved.Such records must not all belong to Zixu. Where did the new soldiers come from?We read "Zuo Zhuan" in the second year of Cheng Gong, and it records that when Qi Qing was defeated in the Gong'an Battle and fled to the north, "the one who saw the guarantor said: Encourage him, the Qi division has been defeated." The local defenders are still there.However, "Warring States Policy" contains Su Qin's words of King Xuan of Qi, saying that "Han Wei wins the battle and wins Qin, half of the soldiers will be defeated, and the four will not defend; if the battle is not victorious, the country will follow with danger." They have all been transferred out to serve as the official army.This is the reason for the sudden increase in the number of soldiers during the Warring States Period.In the history of China, there is no one who truly has soldiers all over the country.

After the unification of the Qin and Han Dynasties, the system of all soldiers in the whole country began to be destroyed. "Hanshu Criminal Law Zhi" said: "The world is established, follow the Qin Dynasty and set up officials in the prefectures." Let the counties and states all over the world select those who can lead the pass, stand upright, and have the strength to fight, and think of them as light chariot knights, talented officers, and building boats. They are often used to teach lessons after the beginning of autumn." The Han army system actually followed the Qin Dynasty. "Han Shu Gao Di Ji" "Note" quoted "Han Yi Note" (two years): "The twenty-three year of the Republic of China is Zheng, one year old is a guard, one year old is a cavalry officer, and one year old is a cavalry knight. At the age of fifty-six, you can avoid being a commoner and living in the fields." "Zhaodi Ji" and "Notes" quoted Ru Chun as saying (Yuanfeng four years): "There are three grades, there are soldiers, there are practices, and there are others. Over-renewal. In ancient times, righteousness and death are impermanent, and everyone should do it one after another. This is for the sake of renewing. The poor want to be hired with more money, and the next-level people pay money to hire them. The month is two thousand, which is to practice the renew. Everyone in the world Guarding the frontier for three days is also called Geng, and the law is called a garrison. It is not allowed for everyone to garrison for three days, and those who do not go there will return it, because they will live there. There will be one watch every year. Those who cannot do it will pay 300 yuan to enter the government. It’s an exaggeration for the officials to give it to the guards.” This is the system of people’s military service and border guards in the Qin and Han Dynasties.Although the law is so, in fact it is no longer feasible.Chao Cuo said that in the system of relegation of the Qin people, first the officials were relegated, son-in-law and Jiaren, and then those who had city registration, and then the elder parents and parents had city registration, and then they entered Lu and took the left ( See the biography of "Hanshu", which is the so-called relegation of seven subjects in the Han Dynasty (see "Hanshu · Wudiji" "Notes" quoted by Zhang Yan in the fourth year of Tianhan Dynasty).During the second generation, Shandong soldiers rose up, and Zhang Han also spared the Lishan disciples to attack them.The use of sinners as soldiers did not begin in the Han Dynasty.Before the early years of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the soldiers of the prefectures were often used, and after the middle age of Emperor Wu, they were often used for relegation.The reason for this is to avoid disturbing the civilian population. "Jia Zi Shu Shu Yuan Pian" said: "In ancient times, the emperor's land was thousands of miles away, and he was the capital in the middle. An envoy from Yao will arrive at a distance of less than fifty miles. Qin Shu will set off on the sea, and a gift of one qian can be paid for a fee of ten qian." This is the biggest reason why the ancient system cannot be implemented.In the feudal era, the people were accustomed to war, and they were not afraid of conquest.However, if the journey is too far and protracted, the livelihood and karma will be wasted.It is also said in "Historical Records: The Biography of Huo Zhuan" that when the soldiers of the Seven Kingdoms rose up, the princes of Chang'an Zhonglie were enshrined in the army, and they loaned money to their sons.Those who joined the army at that time also spent a lot of money.Liehou can't help borrowing money, let alone civilians?If the livelihood and business are all wasted, and the cost of travel is heavy, the people will not be able to afford it economically.This is a material reason.As for spirituality, when the country is small and the people are few, the interests of the country and the people are more consistent. When the country expands, it is not always the case, let alone after reunification?Wang Hui said that during the Warring States period, the power of a generation of countries could control the Xiongnu (see "Han Shu·Han Anguo Biography").However, during the Qin and Han dynasties, the whole country was in turmoil. After all, the Xiongnu came to the dynasty in the Xuan and Yuan dynasties, or because of the civil strife, that is because of this.In terms of material, the people's livelihood must be taken care of; in terms of spirit, the use of troops at that time would inevitably lead to resentment, so the system of dispatching from the prefecture and the state had to be gradually abolished, and relegation and emigration were used instead.This also allowed farmers to concentrate on farming at the time.However, looking back and forth, the people forgot their obligation to serve as soldiers, and the military equipment in various places became increasingly empty.Therefore, in politics, temporary interests are sometimes opposite to permanent interests.Adjusting between the two depends on the vision and skills of politicians.

The destruction of the militia system took place formally during the time of Guangwu in the Later Han Dynasty.In the sixth year of Jianwu, the lieutenant of the county and the country was dismissed.In seven years, light chariot knights, material officials, and building boats were dismissed.Since then, the counties and states no longer care about military preparations (later, some important places were also resettled as captains, and they were temporarily established due to chaos. However, it is not a regular and universal system), and the opportunities for external strength and weakness in the middle are also starts at this time.Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty set up seven school lieutenants, including Yueqi, Huqi, and Changshui (see "Hanshu · List of Officials and Officials". Changshui, Yan Shiguyun: Hu's name).At that time, when using soldiers, they also used national cavalry, etc., but they did not rely on them as the main force.Guangwu in the later Han Dynasty relied on the soldiers of Shanggu and Yuyang to rule the world.After Emperor An, Qiang chaos continued frequently, and a corner of Liangzhou has not been peaceful. The Qiang and Hu in this place are especially fierce and aggressive.Due to the combative nature of the Chinese people, it is impossible to reduce barbarians in such a shallow way. However, war is not a matter of barbarism alone.With the strength of China at that time, it was absolutely unreasonable to say that it was not enough to control the Wuhu's jumping beam.The reason for the chaos in China is all due to the division of China.In a divided world, military dictatorship is bound to happen, and military dictatorships are either a little bit resourceful at the beginning, or have a somewhat rough nature.However, later on, as time goes by, one must fall into arrogance, extravagance and lust.Once arrogant and extravagant, there will be political chaos, military discipline corruption, and strong external forces to oppress it, that is, like mountains collapsing and rivers collapsing, which cannot be stopped.In the early years of the Western Jin Dynasty, the peace and extravagance of the monarchs and ministers were the result of the warlords' arbitrary power and the cause of the chaos of the Five Hus.In the world of Wuhu and China, it is not very easy to use Chinese as soldiers (see Chapter 40).At that time, Han soldiers were used, unless the required number of soldiers was too large and the number of foreigners was insufficient, they were dispatched to make up for the number.Such as the stone tiger attacking Yan, Fu Qin Kou Jin all the battles are.Naturally, this kind of army will not have any combat effectiveness (the army relies on training. The Wuhu at that time did not use Han people as the main force, so naturally it did not care about training. "Book of Northern Qi·Gao Ang Biography" says: In Hanling, Angzi led three thousand people from the village. Gaozu said: "The governor of the high-ranking general will be a Haner, and I am afraid that it will not help. Now I have to cut off more than a thousand Xianbei soldiers, and they are mixed together. What do you think?" Said: "Ao Cao's trilogy has been practiced for a long time, and he has fought back and forth without reducing Xianbei. If it is mixed today, the situation is not compatible. I would like to lead the Han army myself, and I will be more worthy if I don't bother." Gao Zu said. It is unfavorable, and instead borrowed Ang and others to achieve success. It can be seen that the army only focuses on training, not the inherent strength of the nation).Therefore, from the time when Liu and Shi initiated the chaos, to the end of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the military power in the north was always in the hands of foreigners.This is the main reason why it is difficult for the Han nationality to recover.Otherwise, there are many opportunities for the five Hu to take advantage of?But why can't the South take the opportunity to make the Northern Expedition?This is because the military is still arbitrary and the central authority cannot be unified.Just look at the stalemate between Jingzhou and Yangzhou after the Jin Dynasty's eastward transition, the struggle between the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen generations, and the struggle between the central and local governments.

The trend of being strong in the north and weak in the south was developed after the Eastern Jin Dynasty.Before the Three Kingdoms, the military situation was that the north was victorious and the south was victorious.In terms of the quality of the army, although the south is superior to the north, in terms of the degree of social civilization, the north is superior to the south. The reason for the military victory and defeat lies in this.It is wrong for later commentators to think that because of the strength of the people's ethos (although Qin was annexed to the six countries, but Liu Bang rose up, Xiang Ji rose from Wu, and died in order to destroy Qin, it was Qin who died in Chu. Therefore, people at that time, I also liked Nan Gong's words that "the death of Qin will lead to Chu", thinking that it was fulfilled. The reason for Liu Xiang's success or failure lies in strategy, and has nothing to do with the strength of the people. It is obvious. The chaos of the seven kingdoms of Wu and Chu was also very powerful, so they failed in the end , because the world was stable at that time and no changes were allowed, and the king of Wu did not know how to fight. Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Zhou Yu, Lu Su, Zhuge Ke, Lu Xun, Lu Kang, etc., with less than one ten of the land and people, were quite different from those in the north. Contrary to each other, and has the ambition to annex the Central Plains, and Wei Yi has nothing to do with it, which shows the strength of the southern atmosphere).After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the center of gravity of civilization shifted to the south, and the soldiers were trained to fight hard, which could have played a role in recovery in a short period of time.Therefore, there was no success in the end, and the division of the north and the south lasted for as long as 269 years. As a result, the death and annexation of the north were all due to the time, inheriting the legacy of the end of the Han Dynasty, (1) the decline of the scholar-bureaucrats, (2) the support of the soldiers Guess, but the regime in the south is due to the fact that it is in the hands of those who come from the north.Try to imagine: Take the emperors and ministers of Sun Wu and move them to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Can the north recover?It can be seen. "Sprinkling the deeds of monarchs and ministers, soaring and conquering fame", no wonder Du Fu wanted to feel emotional about Lu Mengying.After this long period of corruption, the situation of Nanwei was formed.In the north, however, at that time, a center of force was formed due to the long-term fighting.Zhao Yi's "Twenty-two Histories Notes" has an article, saying that the ancestors of the Zhou, Sui, and Tang dynasties all came from Wuchuan. It can be seen that from the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the center of gravity of military power has not changed.According to the Five Hu, the Di, Qiang, and Jie ethnic groups are all small, and only the Xiongnu and Xianbei are powerful and have a large number of people.The Xiongnu occupied the Central Plains for a long time, and their situation is actually better than that of Xianbei.But he feels too violent, and so does Capricorn.After being killed by Ran Min Dajia, his power declined.At this time, the land in the north could have been peaceful.However, before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, most of the battles between tigers and dragons took place in present-day provinces of Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shanxi, and Shaanxi.The lands of Liaoning, Re, Cha, and Sui are relatively quiet.The Xianbei people recuperate and live here, and they feel full of energy and strength.The Xianbei people at that time were really happy to live in peace and did not want to invade the Central Plains.Therefore, the two dynasties of Emperor Pingwen and Emperor Zhaocheng of the Northern Wei Dynasty were all killed by their subordinates because they wanted to invade the south (see "Book of Wei Preface").However, when Emperor Daowu came, he unleashed his violence and forced his subordinates to invade the Central Plains (Emperor Daowu defeated Yan, and the epidemic caused the group to return to the north. The emperor said: "People from all over the world can be a country, so I care about it. Ears, why don’t you care about the people?” The officials did not dare to say anything again, see "Wei Shu Ben Ji" The second year of the first emperor. According to the "Preface to Ji": Emperor Mu "Ming Ming punished the law, and most of the people in the tribes Violation of orders and offences. Anyone who is in the later stage will be killed by his ministry. Or he will go to the place of death with his family and family. What do people ask? Shi Jiawen played it very gently. If it is recorded according to his original words, it would be "If you want to go back, I will kill you all". So the officials did not dare to reply).At this time, the foreign tribes who ruled the Central Plains were already dying, and Emperor Wu of Song Dynasty had no time to explore the north because of the deep internal conflicts, so the north became the territory.However, before Emperor Xiaowen moved to the south, the focus of the Yuan and Wei dynasties was still in Pingcheng.The invasion of the south is only a matter of development, but the defense of the north is a matter of life and death. Therefore, it is necessary to set up six towns near Pingcheng and use force as a defense.After moving to the south, due to the unequal treatment, the chaos in the six towns was caused.Due to the chaos in the six towns, a Zhu family was created.Lian Gao, Heba, Yuwen, etc. were all brought into the Central Plains.The battle between the dragon and the tiger lasted for another fifty or sixty years, and then unified in the Sui Dynasty.Whether the ancestors of the Sui and Tang Dynasties were Han or foreign, there are many debates in recent times.Of course, nationality is about culture, not blood.What people around the world are arguing about is the issue of blood, which is really meaningless in the history of national struggles.As for the ancestors of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, who were gradually infected with Huhua and were also figures in the Wuchuan lineage, there is no denying it.Therefore, from the beginning of the Zhu family to the early Tang Dynasty, it was really an era when Wuchuan's force was active on the political stage.It was not until Tang Zhenguan that the color of this culture gradually faded (in the early Tang Dynasty, Prince Yin, King Chaola, King Changshan Min, etc., were all people with the color of Huhua).Although the affairs of the Wuhu and Huahua are in the past, in the military, the ethos of emphasizing the use of alien races still remains.Just look at the number of generals and soldiers used in the Tang Dynasty, and you can understand.Most historians refer to the Han and Tang Dynasties together.When it comes to the martial arts of the Tang Dynasty, its achievements are even greater than those of the Han Dynasty.However, this is what Shiyun did (the main thing is the progress of Sino-foreign communication).In terms of military strength, how can the Tang Dynasty compare with the Han Dynasty?Nine out of ten of the Han Dynasty's conquests were sent out by its own soldiers, while the Tang Dynasty mostly used barbarians to control barbarians.In a short-term view, this can also reduce the burden on the Chinese people, but looking at the overall situation, it is enough to foster the strength of the alien race and the decline of the Han nationality.The reason why An Lushan deliberately rebelled and the reason why the Shatuo Turks ran rampant in the Central Plains are all because of this.Even the persistent sluggishness of the Song Dynasty was indirectly related to this.Because of the long-lost temperament, it is not easy to train it to become strong in a short period of time.The abolition of the government soldiers in the Tang Dynasty also has a lot to do with their shelving.

The system of government soldiers began in Zhou Dynasty.The native people are soldiers, and they are rented and transferred, and the governor is used as a coach during the agricultural gap.Divided into hundreds of prefectures, each prefecture is led by a general, and belongs to the twenty-fourth army (at that time, one pillar was the master of the country and two generals, one general ruled the two prefectures, and each prefecture led an army), and the total number of the prefectures was less than five. Ten thousand.Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties followed the system and belonged to the generals of the guards.During the Tang Dynasty, all the prefectures were called Zhechong Prefecture.Each set up Zhechong Duwei, and the left and right Xiaowei Guoyi was the deputy.There are 1,200 soldiers in the upper government, 1,000 soldiers in the middle government, and 800 soldiers in the lower government.In the 20th year of the People's Republic of China, he will serve in the military, and he will be exempted at the age of 60.There are 634 prefectures in the whole country, and there are 261 prefectures in Guanzhong.The system of government soldiers: farming for self-support at ordinary times.Mobilized in wartime, ordered to unify.When the division returned, the seals worn by the superiors and the soldiers were returned to their houses. (1) There is no fee for raising soldiers, but there are many soldiers. (2) Soldiers are all employed civilians, and there is no disadvantage of being homeless. (3) Generals cannot support their own self-respect.This is an advantage compared with the soldiers of the feudal town and the system of recruiting soldiers in the Song Dynasty.Previous commentators called it more.But soldiers are not just in name, they should have reality.When the Fubing system existed in the Tang Dynasty, few people used it.This is due to the conquests in the Tang Dynasty, when fan soldiers were used more, but the government soldiers may not be used enough.The reason is that it was made by the atmosphere at that time, and it can also be said that it was made by the current situation and the policy of the country.The strength of soldiers lies in training.The ability of the leader to train diligently depends on the expectation of the usefulness of his army.If the time is peaceful and the generals do not care about military affairs, the spirit cannot be unceasingly relaxed; once the spirit is relaxed, the training will naturally be abandoned.Therefore, the abolition of the military system in the Tang Dynasty has something to do with the peaceful situation in the early Tang Dynasty and the lack of mobilization of soldiers in the Tang Dynasty.During the time of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu, they already existed in name only.When it came to Xuanzong, it was impossible to give it to the Suwei (the soldiers of the Suwei in the Tang Dynasty were all transferred from the various houses, and they were replaced on schedule, which was called "Fan Shang". Fan is the current word for class).At that time, Zhang said that he knew that it could not be rectified, so he asked the guards to use recruiting soldiers, which were called cavalry.

At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the frontier soldiers were stationed, the big ones were called the army, and the small ones were called the town guards.The commanding army and town guards are called Dao.Dao had a chief supervisor, who was later renamed the chief governor.Most of the governors lead envoys to hold festivals, and people call them Jiedushi.After Ruizong, he took it as an official name.There were very few frontier soldiers in the early Tang Dynasty.In the time of Empress Wu, the mausoleum of the state was replaced.There are Turks in the north, Xi and Khitan in the northeast, and Tubo in the southwest.During Xuanzong's time, Jiedu envoys were set up in the border areas to manage things briefly.The soldiers from the northeast to the northwest are especially strong, and the world has become a trend of emphasis.An Lushan and Shi Siming were both ambitious as barbarians, and their deaths led to the Tianbao Rebellion.After the chaos, feudal towns spread all over the mainland.Among them, the remnants of Anshi, which the Tang Dynasty could not completely eradicate, were also granted Jiedu envoys.The towns then formed a contract with each other to pass on the land to their descendants, not following the order of the court.Su and Dai II both tolerated and raised carbuncles.De Zong wanted to rectify it, but his troops were insufficient, so he called Zhu Xi's rebellion.Although Zhu Xi was flattened later, Hebei and Huaixi could not be asked.Xianzong used the power of nine oxen and two tigers to pacify Huaixi, and Hebei also accepted the wind.However, in the time of Mu Zong, Hebei rebelled.Since then, the end of the Tang Dynasty cannot be settled.Of course, only Hebei was the only one in the Tang Dynasty's vassals and towns that was always based on the soil.However, in other places, it is inevitable that there will be disturbances from time to time.And even in normal times, the power of the imperial court to command and control is always incomplete.Therefore, suing, replacing and returning, has hidden the trend of division.After the chaos in Huangchao, the collapse was beyond control.However, the feudal towns can surely kill their lives, but if they control the central government and make them unable to cheer up, the ban on the army will be more dangerous than the feudal towns. The Forbidden Army was conscripted in the early Tang Dynasty and was homeless.The government gave Weibei idle land and left it as a guard, known as the Yuan Cong Forbidden Army.The meaning of this country's kindness is not to fight.When Emperor Xuanzong broke Tubo, he set up Shence Army in the west of Lintao.During the Anshi Rebellion, Cheng Ruqiu, the military envoy, sent general Wei Boyu to lead a thousand people to help, and stationed in Shanzhou.After the death of Ruqiu, the land of the Shence Army was trapped in Tubo, so Boyu was used as the envoy of the Shence Army, and he was still stationed in Shanxi, while Zhongguan Yu Chaoen supervised his army by observing the appearance of the army.Boyu died, and the army was unified in Chaoen.During Daizong's time, Tubo was trapped in Chang'an, Daizong went to Shaanxi, and Chaoen returned to Beijing with a magical army.Later, it was listed as the forbidden army, and the west of Beijing was mostly its defense line.Dezong returned from Fengtian, suspected the courtiers, and led his army with middle officials.At that time, the frontier soldiers were rewarded very little, but the Shence Army was quite generous, so the generals invited more remote subordinates to the Shence Army, and the number of troops expanded to 150,000.The power of middle officials cannot be controlled. "Since the eighth generation of Emperor Mu Zong, seven kings have been established by eunuchs." ("Tang Shu Xi Zong Ji" praise. See "Twenty-two History Notes: Tang Dynasty Eunuch's Disaster") Shunzong, Wenzong, and Zhaozong were all named If you want to punish eunuchs, you will either be abolished and killed, or you will see a prisoner.The eunuchs at that time had become impossible to eradicate without military force.However, under the supervision of the eunuchs, the imperial court had no way of gaining military strength (During the time of Wenzong, Zheng Zhu wanted to seize the eunuchs' soldiers and was defeated. Zhaozong wanted to train his own army to eliminate the eunuchs but was defeated).Calling foreign soldiers knows that the eunuchs will be eliminated and the government will fall into the hands of the eunuchs, so no one dares to do it.However, as far as the end of the Tang Dynasty, the pawn had to go out of this way.So the eunuchs were exhausted and Tang was also usurped by Zhu Liang.The scourge of eunuchs happened frequently in the past dynasties, but it was only the Tang Dynasty that supported soldiers to cause trouble.In short, at the root of political power, there should be no self-respecting soldiers, and eunuchs are just one of them. The forbidden soldiers were controlled inside, and the feudal towns were blocked outside. The political situation of the Tang Dynasty was finally out of control, and it was split into Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.Although the Jiedu envoys in the Tang Dynasty did not obey the government's orders, they could not restrain their troops.The army is dissatisfied with Jiedushi, and often mutinies and kills them, leaving no one alone.The government has nothing to do but appoint them.The cunning people then mobilized the sergeants, killed the generals and supported themselves.Even if his father, son and brother succeed each other, he must be generously rewarded to bait his sergeants.All of these have almost become a common situation.The so-called "land is good at generals, and generals are good at soldiers".In the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, only Nanping was always called the king, and the rest were all called emperors. However, in reality, it was still just a military envoy.The addition of the yellow robe by Emperor Taizu of Song Dynasty is the story of the support of Jiedushi in the Tang Dynasty. The rest of the evidence does not need to be listed.The situation has come to this point, and it must be rectified.Therefore, Song Taizu must weaken the vassals and strengthen the central army. The military system of the Song Dynasty: There are four types of soldiers: the Forbidden Army, which is the Central Army, all of which belong to the Sanya.Said the Xiang army, it is a local soldier, belonging to the states.The so-called township soldiers are militiamen who only defend their own places and do not go out to garrison them.It is called Fan Bing, which refers to the fact that different races unite as soldiers, and use the method of local soldiers.Taizu used Zhou Shizong's strategy to promote the strong Xiang army to the forbidden army, and those who remained in the Xiang army were not taught much, but only worthy of service.Township soldiers and fan soldiers are not the official army of the country, so they can be discussed.Therefore, the focus of force is actually the forbidden army.Where the whole country needs to be guarded, the forbidden army is sent to go there again, which is called "fan garrison".Most of the people in the past who talked about the military system of the Song Dynasty slandered it.They even think that the reason why the Tang Dynasty is strong and the Song Dynasty is weak is because of the existence and abolition of the feudal towns.This is really blind talk.When the Tang Dynasty was strong and prosperous, how could there be any feudal towns?By the time Xuanzong set up a feudal town, he had already changed to a defensive position because of the majesty of the country.In the past, foreign policy focused on preventing problems before they happened.It is necessary to set up the generals of the Liao Dynasty and the protectors of the Western Regions in the Han Dynasty, and the protectors of the capitals in the Tang Dynasty. For the surrendered tribes, (1) monitor their actions, (2) understand their feelings, and (3) handle the mutual relations between the tribes. relation.All in all, it is to prevent them from (1) annexing each other and (2) sitting down to become stronger.Its setting is completely within the territory of Yi and Di, but not within the territory of China. This is called "guarding in the four barbarians".It is the best policy.Running one's own borders has fallen into the second meaning.However, if the soldiers and horses are strong, the barriers are complete, the military orders of the central government are strict, and the frontier generals are also ordered to be cautious, it is still a good strategy.If they are good at land like the Tang Dynasty's feudal towns, they must make bad decisions and enter into the helpless.Because what the army is most afraid of is arrogance, and arrogance means that they will not obey orders and cannot be external, but internal strife;With the strength of the soldiers in Youzhou in the Tang Dynasty, it was impossible to control a Khitan and make it big; the feudal towns were all over the interior, and Huang Chao ran across the north and south, as if entering a land of no one, the soldiers summoned the soldiers of Shatuo, and then defeated him; in the Five Dynasties, And because of the infighting between the central government and the feudal towns, the Khitan invaded, which is evidence that it is as strong as iron and as big as a mountain.There is nothing to say about the misfortune and blessing of the feudal town.The soldiers of the Song Dynasty were all recruited, which was contrary to the military system of the government. The commentators also insisted on right Tang and left Song.Although the system of recruiting troops has its disadvantages, it is also of considerable value economically and politically.The treacherous and rascals in the world must be punished, and it is best to be able to punish them, influence them, and change their nature. Economically, this generation is the so-called "rogue", and its nature cannot be diligent in production. , It is extremely difficult to punish and influence.Only in the camp, the rules are the strictest, and it may be restrained and changed.Although this generation's behavior is bad, but if they can be disciplined, their combat effectiveness will not be worse than that of good people with wealth, or even better.Using the cost of raising soldiers to sell part of it can not only relieve the rascals in this generation's life, but the salary is not in vain.If a soldier has been in the army for ten to twenty years, he has undergone long-term training; when he is dismissed, he will be old, and the nature of the majority must have changed, and he can be engaged in production. Become a good citizen.According to the basic theory of economy, it is appropriate to divide the industry, and the common people pay their salaries to support the soldiers, but they don't care about the matters of the battle. From the economic standpoint, it is beneficial and not detrimental.If it is called the system of recruiting soldiers, the people will not know about soldiers, and the whole country will be soldiers. In fact, there is a need for this today.In the past, soldiers were really able to defend against the enemy, and the common people did not need to be all soldiers.Therefore, the system of recruiting troops has its own considerable value economically and politically.When the Song Dynasty legislated, it also had its own deep meaning.However, what he did could not meet his expectations, so Levi took shape and the harm was seen.The disadvantages of the military system in the Song Dynasty are: (1) The gradual corruption of military strength. (2) The system of Fan Garrison: (a) The soldiers do not know the generals, and the generals do not know the soldiers, which is not easy to command and control. (B) The soldiers have lived in the area for a short time, and they are neither familiar with the terrain nor have any contact with the local people. (C) Once every three years, the cost of the road is equivalent to going out once every three years. (3) Especially the big ones are those who lead the soldiers, which is beneficial to the number of soldiers. (Zi) can not only pay for the lack of money to enrich themselves, (ugly) but also serve them for profit.It is not easy to get permission for those who beg for exemption; whenever there are floods and droughts, recruiting soldiers is often used as a strategy to relieve the famine, so the number of soldiers increases.When the Song Dynasty founded the country, it was less than 200,000.In the last years of Taizu, it had increased to 370,000.In the last years of Taizong, it increased to 660,000.In the last years of Zhenzong, it increased to 910,000.During the time of Renzong, Xixia soldiers rose up, increasing to 1.25 million.Although it was slightly reduced later, there are still 1.16 million.Ouyang Xiu said: "The wealth of the world is as close as Huaidian, as far as Wu and Chu, and all of them are taken back to the capital. Yan Ran has nothing to do, but the tax is so heavy that it cannot be added." There are so many soldiers, even if you can War is also a crisis, not to mention that you can't fight, and you will endure insults to Liao and Xia; and when Xixia invaded, you still drove the country soldiers to defend against the enemy?At that time, everyone knew the harm of having too many soldiers, but they were all worried about calling for change and did not dare to lay off.It was not until Wang Anshi came out that he was greatly eliminated.Those who do not serve in the imperial army will be demoted to the Xiang army, and those who will not serve in the Xiang army will be exempted from civilians, and the number of troops will be reduced to more than half.He also changed the system of garrisons, selected important places to garrison them, and placed generals to unify them (in the name of the first and second, a total of ninety-one generals in the country).Although An Shi has not achieved much in the military, his courage to cut troops is commendable.However, the militia system it has implemented has not achieved much and has drawbacks. Wang Anshi's militia law is related to the Baowu system.He established the law of Baojia, with ten families as one bao, and set up a guarantor.Fifty families are one big bao, with a big guarantor.Five hundred families are guaranteed as one capital, and the capital is set up to protect the principal and deputy.If there are two children in the family, one of them is the Baoding.Several people in the first day of the wheel warned the robbers.Later, he taught martial arts and was a member of the militia.The new party is also quite self-proclaimed about the achievements of the militia (such as the contradictory statement in the "History of the Song Dynasty", which says that "officials and powerful families, the children are happy to go there, and immediately perform arts, often better than the army" and so on).However, according to the memorials of Sima Guang and Wang Yansou recorded in "History of the Song Dynasty", (1) they are in name but not real, and (2) the punishment of Baozheng Chang's inspectors and others is really dark.We dare not say what the new party says, it is all hypocrisy, but I am afraid that this is a minority, and the majority of them must be as the old party said.Because such administrative disadvantages can be found everywhere.There are two necessary conditions for the militia system: (1) To be oppressed by a powerful enemy.In this way, the whole country will have the spirit of diligence and vigilance, and the people will work hard without complaining. (2) Administrative supervision must be strict.Officials and the chiefs of Baowu dare not rely on their power to abuse the people.At that time, these two conditions were lacking, so it was inevitable that the disadvantages would outweigh the advantages.As for the method of Wubao, its origin is very ancient. "Zhou Guan" Da Situ said: "Let the five families be compared, so that they can protect each other. The five families are compared, so that they can accept each other. The four Lus are clans, so that they can be buried together. The five clans are the party, so that they can save each other.五党为州，使之相赒。五州为乡，使之相宾。”这原和《孟子》“死徙无出乡，乡田同井，出入相友，守望相助，疾病相扶持”之意相同，乃使之互相救恤。商君令什伍相司（同伺）连坐，才使之互相稽查。前者为社会上固有的组织，后者则政治上之所要求。此惟乱时可以行之。在平时，则犯大恶者（如谋反叛逆之类）非极其秘密，即徒党众多，声势浩大（如江湖豪侠之类）；或其人特别凶悍，为良民所畏（如土豪劣绅之类），必非人民所能检举。若使之检举小恶，则徒破坏社会伦理，而为官吏开敲诈之门，其事必不能行。所以自王安石创此法后，历代都只于乱时用以清除奸轨，在平时总是有名无实，或并其名而无之的（伍保之法，历代法律上本来都有，并不待王安石的保甲，然亦都不能行）。 裁募兵，行民兵，是宋朝兵制的一变。自此募兵之数减少。元祐时，旧党执政，民兵之制又废。然募兵之额，亦迄未恢复。徽宗时，更利其缺额，封桩其饷，以充上供，于是募兵亦衰。至金人入犯，以陕西为著名多兵之地，种师道将以入援，仅得一万五千人而已。以兵多著名的北宋，而其结果至于如此，岂非奇谈？ 南渡之初，军旅寡弱。当时诸将之兵，多是靠招降群盗或招募，以资补充的。其中较为强大的，当推所谓御前五军。杨沂中为中军，总宿卫。张俊为前军，韩世忠为后军，岳飞为左军，刘光世为右军，皆屯驻于外，是为四大将。光世死，其军叛降伪齐（一部分不叛的，归于张俊），以四川吴玠之军补其缺。其时岳飞驻湖北，韩世忠驻淮东，张俊驻江东，皆立宣抚司。宗弼再入犯，秦桧决意言和，召三人入京，皆除枢密副使，罢三宣抚司，以副校统其兵，称为统制御前军马。驻扎之地仍旧，谓之某州驻扎御前诸军。四川之兵，亦以御前诸军为号。直达朝廷，帅臣不得节制。其饷，则特设总领以司之，不得自筹。其事略见《文献通考·兵考》。 北族在历史上，是个侵略民族。这是地理条件所决定的。在地理上，（一）瘠土的民族，常向沃土的民族侵略。（二）但又必具有地形平坦，利于集合的条件。所以像天山南路，沙漠绵延，人所居住的，都是星罗棋布的泉地，像海中的岛屿一般；又或仰雪水灌溉，依天山之麓而建国；以至青海、西藏，山岭崎岖，交通太觉不便，则土虽瘠，亦不能成为侵略民族。历史上侵掠的事实，以蒙古高原为最多，而辽、吉二省间的女真，在近代，亦曾两度成为侵略民族。这是因为蒙古高原，地瘠而平，于侵掠的条件，最为完具。而辽吉二省，地形亦是比较平坦的，且与繁荣的地方相接近，亦有以引起其侵略之欲望。北族如匈奴、突厥等，虽然强悍，初未尝侵入中国。五胡虽占据中国的一部分，然久居塞内，等于中国的乱民，而其制度亦无足观。只有辽、金、元、清四朝，是以一个异民族的资格，侵入中国的；而其制度，亦和中国较有关系。今略述其事如下。 四朝之中，辽和中国的关系最浅。辽的建国，系合部族及州县而成。部族是它的本族，和所征服的北方的游牧民族。州县则取自中国之地。其兵力，亦是以部族为基本的。部族的离合，及其所居之地，都系由政府指定，不能自由。其人民全体皆隶兵籍。当兵的素质，极为佳良。《辽史》称其“各安旧风，狃习劳事，不见纷华异物而迁。故能家给人足，戎备整完。卒之虎视四方，强朝弱附，部族实为之爪牙”，可谓不诬了。但辽立国虽以部族为基本，而其组织军队，亦非全不用汉人。世徒见辽时的五京乡丁，只保卫本地方，不出戍，以为辽朝全不用汉人做正式军队，其实不然。辽制有所谓宫卫军者，每帝即位，辄置之。出则扈从，入则居守，葬则因以守陵。计其丁数，凡有四十万八千，出骑兵十万一千。所谓不待调发州县部族，而十万之兵已具。这是辽朝很有力的常备军。然其置之也，则必“分州县，析部族”。又太祖征讨四方，皇后述律氏居守，亦摘蕃汉精锐三十万为属珊军。可见辽的军队中，亦非无汉人了。此外辽又有所谓大首领部族军，乃亲王大臣的私甲，亦可率之以从征。国家有事，亦可向其量借。又北方部族，服属于辽的，谓之属国，亦得向其量借兵粮。契丹的疆域颇大，兵亦颇多而强，但其组织不坚凝。所以天祚失道，金兵一临，就土崩瓦解。这不是辽的兵力不足以御金，乃是并没有从事于抵御。其立国本无根柢，所以土崩瓦解之后，亦就更无人从事于复国运动。耶律大石虽然有意于恢复，在旧地，亦竞不能自立了。 金朝的情形，与辽又异。辽虽风气敦朴，然畜牧极盛，其人民并不贫穷的。金则起于瘠土，人民非常困穷。然亦因此而养成其耐劳而好侵掠的性质。《金史》说其“地狭产薄，无事苦耕，可致衣食；有事苦战，可致俘获”，可见其侵掠的动机了。金本系一小部族，其兵，全系集合女真诸部族而成。战时的统帅，即系平时的部长。在平时称为孛堇，战时则称为猛安谋克。猛安译言千夫长，谋克译言百夫长，这未必真是千夫和百夫，不过依其众寡，略分等级罢了。金朝的兵，其初战斗力是极强的，但迁入中原之后，腐败亦很速。看《廿二史札记·金用兵先后强弱不同》一条，便可知道。金朝因其部落的寡少，自伐宋以后，即参用汉兵。其初契丹、渤海、汉人等，投降金朝的，亦都授以猛安谋克。女真的猛安谋克户，杂居汉地的，亦听其与契丹、汉人相婚姻，以相固结。熙宗以后，渐想把兵柄收归本族。于是罢汉人和渤海人猛安谋克的承袭。移剌窝斡乱后，又将契丹户分散，隶属于诸猛安谋克。自世宗时，将猛安谋克户移入中原，其人既已腐败到既不能耕，又不能战，而宣宗南迁，仍倚为心腹，外不能抗敌，而内敛怨于民。金朝的速亡，实在是其自私本族，有以自召之的。总而言之：文明程度落后的民族，与文明程度较高的民族遇，是无法免于被同化的。像金朝、清朝这种用尽心机，而仍不免于灭亡，还不如像北魏孝文帝一般，自动同化于中国的好。 元朝的兵制，也是以压制为政策的。其兵出于本部族的，谓之蒙古军。出于诸部族的，谓之探马赤军。既入中原后，取汉人为军，谓之汉军。其取兵之法，有以户论的，亦有以丁论的。兵事已定之后，曾经当过兵的人，即定入兵籍，子孙世代为兵。其贫穷的，将几户合并应役。甚贫或无后的人，则落其兵籍，别以民补。此外无他变动。其灭宋所得的兵，谓之新附军。带兵的人，“视兵数之多寡，为爵秩之崇卑”，名为万户、千户、百户。皆分上、中、下。初制，万户千户死阵者，子孙袭职，死于病者降一等。后来不论大小及身故的原因，一概袭职。所以元朝的军官，可视为一个特殊阶级。世祖和二三大臣定计：使宗王分镇边徼及襟喉之地。河、洛、山东，是他们所视为腹心之地，用蒙古军、探马赤军戍守。江南则用汉军及新附军，但其列城，亦有用万户、千户、百户戍守的。元朝的兵籍，汉人是不许阅看的。所以占据中国近百年，无人知其兵数。观其屯戍之制，是很有深心的。但到后来，其人亦都入洪炉而俱化。末叶兵起时，宗王和世袭的军官，并不能护卫它。 元朝以异族入据中国，此等猜防之法，固然无怪其然。明朝以本族人做本族的皇帝，却亦暗袭其法，那就很为无谓了。明制：以五千六百人为卫。一千一百十二人为千户所，一百十二人为百户所（什伍之长，历代都即在其什伍之人数内，明朝则在其外。每一百户所，有总旗二人，小旗十人，所以共为一百十二人）。卫设都指挥使，隶属于五军都督府。兵的来路有三种：第（一）种从征，是开国时固有的兵。第（二）种归附，是敌国兵投降的。第（三）种谪发，则是刑法上罚令当兵的，俗话谓之“充军”。从征和归附，固然是世代为兵，谪发亦然。身死之后，要调其继承人，继承人绝掉，还要调其亲族去补充的，谓之“句丁”。这明是以元朝的兵籍法为本，而加以补充的。五军都督府，多用明初勋臣的子孙，也是模仿元朝军官世袭之制。治天下不可以有私心。有私心，要把一群人团结为一党，互相护卫，以把持天下的权利，其结果，总是要自受其害的。军官世袭之制，后来腐败到无可挽救，即其一端。金朝和元朝，都是异族，他们社会进化的程度本浅，离封建之世未远，猛安谋克和万户千户百户，要行世袭之制，还无怪其然。明朝则明是本族人，却亦重视开国功臣的子孙，把他看做特别阶级，其私心就不可恕了。抱封建思想的人，总以为某一阶级的人，其特权和权利，既全靠我做皇帝才能维持，他们一定会拥护我。所以把这一阶级的人，看得特别亲密。殊不知这种特权阶级，到后来荒淫无度，知识志气，都没有了，何谓权利？怕他都不大明白。明白了，明白什么是自己的权利了，明白自己的权利，如何才得维持了，因其懦弱无用，眼看着他人抢夺他的权利，他亦无如之何。所谓贵戚世臣，理应与国同休戚的，却从来没有这回事，即由于此。武力是不能持久的。持久了，非腐败不可。这其原因，由于战争是社会的变态而非其常态。变态是有其原因的，原因消失了，变态亦即随之而消失。所以从历史上看来，从没有一支真正强盛到几十年的军队（因不遇强敌，甚或不遇战事，未至溃败决裂，是有的。然这只算是侥幸。极强大的军队，转瞬化为无用，这种事实，是举不胜举的。以宋武帝的兵力，而到文帝时即一蹶不振，即其一例。又如明末李成梁的兵力，亦是不堪一击的，侥幸他未与满洲兵相遇罢了。然而军事的败坏，其机实隐伏于成梁之时，这又是其一例。军队的腐败，其表现于外的，在精神方面，为士气的衰颓；在物质方面，则为积弊的深痼。虽有良将，亦无从整顿，非解散之而另造不可。世人不知其原理，往往想就军队本身设法整顿，其实这是无法可设的。因为军队是社会的一部分，不能不受广大社会的影响。在社会学上，较低的原理，是要受较高的原理的统驭的）。“兵可百年不用，不可一日无备”，这种思想，亦是以常识论则是，而经不起科学评判的。因为到有事时，预备着的军队，往往无用，而仍要临时更造。府兵和卫所，是很相类的制度。府兵到后来，全不能维持其兵额。明朝对于卫所的兵额，是努力维持的，所以其缺额不至如唐朝之甚。然以多数的兵力，对北边，始终只能维持守势（现在北边的长城，十分之九，都是明朝所造）。末年满洲兵进来，竟尔一败涂地，则其兵力亦有等于无。此皆特殊的武力不能持久之证。 清朝太祖崛起，以八旗编制其民。太宗之世，蒙古和汉人归降的，亦都用同一的组织。这亦和金朝人以猛安谋克授渤海、汉人一样。中国平定之后，以八旗兵驻防各处，亦和金朝移猛安谋克户于中原，及元朝镇戍之制，用意相同。惟金代的猛安谋克户，系散居于民间；元朝万户分驻各处，和汉人往来，亦无禁限。清朝驻防的旗兵，则系和汉人分城而居的，所以其冲突不如金元之烈。但其人因此与汉人隔绝，和中国的社会，全无关系，到末造，要筹划旗民生计，就全无办法了。清代的汉兵，谓之绿旗，亦称绿营。中叶以前的用兵，是外征以八旗为主，内乱以绿营为主的。八旗兵在关外时，战斗之力颇强。中国军队强悍的，亦多只能取守势，野战总是失利时居多（洪承畴松山之战，是其一例）。然入关后腐败亦颇速。三藩乱时，八旗兵已不足用了。自此至太平天国兴起时，内地粗觉平安，对外亦无甚激烈的战斗。武功虽盛，实多侥天之幸。所以太平军一起，就势如破竹了。 中国近代，历史上有两种潮流潜伏着，推波助澜，今犹未已，非通观前后，是不能觉悟出这种趋势来的。这两种潮流：其（一）是南方势力的兴起。南部数省，向来和大局无甚关系。自明桂王据云贵与清朝相抗，吴三桂举兵，虽然终于失败，亦能震荡中原；而西南一隅，始隐然为重于天下。其后太平军兴，征伐几遍全国。虽又以失败终，然自清末革命，至国民政府北伐之成功，始终以西南为根据。现在的抗战，还是以此为民族复兴的策源地的。其（二）是全国皆兵制的恢复。自秦朝统一以后，兵民渐渐分离，至后汉之初，而民兵之制遂废，至今已近二千年了。康有为说，中国当承平时代，是没有兵的。虽亦有称为兵的一种人，其实性质全与普通人民无异（见《欧洲十一国游记》）。此之谓有兵之名，无兵之实。旷观历代，都是当需要用兵时，则产生出一支真正的军队来；事过境迁，用兵的需要不存，此种军队，亦即凋谢，而只剩些有名无实的军队，充作仪仗之用了。此其原理，即由于上文所说的战争是社会的变态，原不足怪。但在今日，帝国主义跋扈之秋，非恢复全国皆兵之制，是断不足以自卫的。更无论扶助其他弱小民族了。这一个转变，自然是极艰难。但环境既已如此，决不容许我们的不变。当中国和欧美人初接触时，全未知道需要改变。所想出来的法子，如引诱他们上岸，而不和他在海面作战；如以灵活的小船，制他笨重的大船等，全是些闭着眼睛的妄论。到咸同间，外