Chapter 42 Chapter 39 Regime

When a society develops to a certain level, a country emerges.Before the emergence of the state, the method of human unity relied solely on blood ties. At that time, the important organization was the clan, and internal governance and external defense all relied on it.As the fortunes of the world progress, people with different blood ties come into contact with more and more people. Human organization is no longer limited to people of the same blood, and people living in one place are not limited to people of the same blood.The clan then became a tribe.The qualifications of the ruler are not the patriarch but the chief.Its rule also discusses the region, setting a precedent for the national territory.

From a clan to a tribe, it probably went through such a situation.Within the clan, due to the differentiation of occupations, the family gradually emerged.The clan itself collapsed.Each family is not absolutely equal as it was in the clan era, but divided into rich and poor.Wealth is power, and the peaceful situation of the clan is gradually destroyed. There are conflicts between the poor and the rich, and they have to use power to rule.Among different clans, the battles are fierce.The victor takes the loser as a prisoner and makes him a slave.Those who collect their tribute are serfs.Between serfs, slaves and masters, there are naturally greater contradictions, which need to be suppressed forcefully.Therefore, it is beneficial to contribute to the change of the conquering clan itself.To conquer the entire clan is for the common people.Among them, some people who hold the power of affairs form the nobility.If there is a supreme leader among the nobles, it is the predecessor of the monarch.In the beginning, nobles were close to commoners, and commoners were far away from serfs and slaves.Afterwards, the role of the same blood gradually weakened, and the relationship between whether they controlled the political power or not gradually increased, and the common people became closer to serfs and slaves, while they became farther away from nobles (see the next chapter).But commoners always had some right to participate in politics, while serfs and slaves did not.The decision of political power, which nominally last belongs to one person, is the monarchy.Those belonging to a smaller number are called aristocracy.Those that belong to the greater majority are democracies.This classification comes from Aristotle.Although it is different from today's situation, it is still suitable to discuss the ancient regime.

Clans and tribes, in practice, are not easy to distinguish closely.Because it has evolved into the tribal era, it still retains some hints of the clan era inside.Theoretically speaking, their unity is due to the same blood (although it may not be the same in reality, but they are accommodated in their groups, that is, they are treated as people of the same blood), and their rule is all based on kinship. If it is, it is a clan.Otherwise, it is a tribe.Because the two are mixed and difficult to distinguish, we can also borrow the term from "Liao History" and call them tribes (see "Ying Wei Zhi").As for the so-called country in ancient times, its meaning is completely different from that of today.The so-called country in ancient times refers to the private property of the princes.Including (1) their residence, and (2) their land with benefits.The so-called family of a doctor is the same (the so-called country in ancient books refers to the capital of the princes. The origin of the capital is the residence of the princes. Within the feudal domain of the princes, in terms of property, it is not all privately owned by the princes. Part of it , or to be used for enfeoffment. For such places, the princes can only collect their tribute but not their taxes. They can directly collect their taxes as income from property, and it is also limited to the princes' mining land. "Shang Shu "Da Zhuan" said: "In ancient times, when the princes were granted the title, they must have land. Although the descendants were deposed for crimes, they did not depose the land, so that the sages of the descendants would guard the world and worship the person who was first granted. This is called Prosperity and destruction of the country, continue the peerless world", that is to say. From the perspective of property, mining land should be included in the character of the country. "Book of Rites · Li Yun" said: "The emperor has land to deal with his descendants, and the princes have countries to deal with them. His descendants." It is the so-called mutual talk to prepare for each other. To say that the Son of Heaven has land, means that the princes also have land; when the princes have a country, it means that the Son of Heaven also has a country. Under these usages, the meaning of the word Tian also includes the country, The meaning of the national character also includes Tian. It is the same as the grammar of the ancients).The so-called country today has no such words in ancient times.It is necessary to seek its similarity, then it is the word "sheji" or the word "state".She is the god of earth, and Ji is the god of grain, and they are worshiped by people who live in the same place.Therefore, the fall of the country means the destruction of the whole group.Bang and Feng are the same language.The meaning of the seal is tired soil.At the junction of the two tribes, the mound of soil is higher as a sign, and it is called a seal.By extension, whatever method is used to indicate the boundary can be called a seal (such as digging a ditch to show the boundary, it can also be called a seal. Therefore, in Liaoning Province today, there is a place name Goubangzi. The word Bang is the word Bang, and also That is, the word seal. The word "bang" of Shanghai Ocean Pidgin is also regarded as a seal).Wherever the border goes, it is called a state.Ancient state characters and national characters have different meanings.Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty named the state, and the Han people taboo the word state, and they all changed it to the state.So the meaning of Guozi and Bangzi are confused.There are several national characters in ancient books, which were originally regarded as national characters.For example, "a country with a hundred miles in a day" and "a hundred miles in a country with a day" are just that.Territories can win and shrink from time to time, but city walls cannot be rebuilt from time to time (the country and the domain are the same, or sound, at first it was also the same word, so the country also has the meaning of boundaries. However, it has been divided into two languages ​​for a long time. In ancient books Nine times out of ten, the meaning is different if you use Guoziyu characters).

Aristocracy and democracy are not without similar systems in ancient books.However, generally speaking, monarchy is extremely developed in China.The first qualification of the monarch is inherited from the patriarch in the clan era, so ancient books always say that the monarch is the parent of the people.The second is the political or military leader.The third is also the leader of the religion.Therefore, the son of heaven sacrifices to the heaven and the earth, and the princes sacrifice to the country, etc. ("Book of Rites · Wangzhi"), all have the right to represent their subordinates and be priests. "(quoted in Mencius King Hui of Liang Part II), the monarch has the highest right to education.

Since the predecessor of the monarch is the patriarch of the clan, his inheritance law is also the inheritance law of the clan patriarch.See previous chapter.In a matrilineal society, it is brother and brother, and in a patrilineal society, it is father and son.When he is the patriarch of the clan, he has little rights to contend for, and his relationship is also small, so the legislation is not very precise. "Zuo Zhuan" in the twenty-sixth year of Zhao Gong, the prince told the princes, saying that the inheritance law of the Zhou Dynasty was based on the year when the common people were the same.It is very easy for two people to be the same age, but it is very difficult to be the same month and day. Why can't they tell the difference between the old and the young, but have to use random conditions such as virtue and divination?It can be seen that the old law is not very dense. "Gongyang" Yin Gongnian He's "Note" said: "Rite: Mrs. Shi has no children, and the right concubine is established. The right concubine has no children, and the left concubine is established. The left concubine has no children, and the suitable concubine is established. Shi Jidi has no children. The right concubine is established. The right concubine has no children, and the left concubine is established. The relatives of the Zhi family first establish the concubine. If there is a grandson and dies, the Zhi family will establish the younger brother first, and the Wen family will honor the grandson first. For their twins, the Zhi family will see Mr. Li, and the Wen family will establish the offspring according to the original intention." The rules are very strict.This was supplemented by later generations because of the important relationship between the succession of the monarch, and it is a theory rather than a fact.

King Li of Zhou was expelled, King Xuan was not established, Zhou called for two princes, and the administration of the republic lasted for fourteen years.Sovereignty does not belong to one person, and it is most similar to European aristocratic regimes.According to "Zuo Zhuan" in the fourteenth year of Duke Xiang, Duke Xian of Wei fled, and the people of Wei established Gongsun Pian, father of Sun Lin, and Prime Minister Ning Zhi to obey the orders of the princes. , actually somewhat similar.But there is still a king in form.As for Lu Zhaogong's departure, the state of Lu did not have a monarch. The Ji family must not be arbitrarily arbitrary in the state affairs, and it is even more similar to the rule of the republic.It can be seen that the aristocratic regime also had its clues in ancient times, but it was not developed and became a system.

As for democratic politics, its vestiges are even more numerous.We can simply say: This kind of system did exist in ancient times, but it was destroyed later. "Zhou Guan" has a method of inquiring about the public. The township officials "each command the people in their villages and send them to the court", and the small officials "pull out the order and then ask about it."Its matters: to inquire about the dangers of the country, inquire about the relocation of the country, and inquire about the establishment of the monarch.According to "Zuo Zhuan", in the eighth year of Dinggong, Weihou wanted to rebel against Jin, and the people of the court sent Wang Sunjia to ask him.In the first year of Aigong, Wu called Chen Huaigong, and Huaigong also asked the people of the country. This is the so-called inquiry about the dangers of the country;Its words are the "Pangeng Chapter" in the "Book of Books" today.King Tai of Zhou wanted to move to Qi, and "told it to his elders" ("Mencius · King Hui of Liang Part II"), this is the so-called relocation of the country; He competed with King Jing, and Jing Bo, an envoy from the Marquis of Jin, went to ask.Shibo stands in Qianji (the name of the city gate), and asks in Jiezhong (jiezhong, the public).In the twenty-sixth year of Duke Ai, the people of Yue accepted Wei Hou, and the people of Wei also sent a public question.This is the so-called inquiry Lijun.It can be seen that the words of "Zhou Guan" are based on ancient political habits, not ideal. "Book of Books Hong Fan": "You have great doubts, plan for Naixin, plan for nobles, plan for common people, plan for divination. You follow, turtles follow, divination follow, Qingshi follow, common people follow , This is called Datong. The body is healthy and strong, and the children and grandchildren are happy. It is auspicious. If you follow, turtles follow, divinations follow, Qing scholars rebel, common people rebel, auspicious. Qing scholars follow, turtles follow, divinations follow, you will rebel, The common people are rebellious, auspicious. The common people are rebellious, the tortoises are rebellious, and the divination is rebellious. If you are rebellious, if you are rebellious, it is auspicious. If you are rebellious, the tortoise is rebellious. Divinations are against people, they are quiet and auspicious, and they are used as inauspicious.” Here, one monarch, two ministers, three ordinary people, four tortoises, and five divinations each occupy a certain power, and the number of them to determine good and bad luck must also be tied. A method of meeting.Not a random question.As for random inquiries, as Mencius said, "Everyone in the country calls them sages, and then examine them, and when they see them, they use them." The people of the country say that they can be killed, and then they will examine it, and if they see that they can be killed, then they will be killed" ("Liang Huiwang Part II"), and the so-called "Tsk House" discussion in "Guan Zi" (see "Huan Gong Wen"), it seems that it is nothing more than It is a weekly consultation and extensive collection, and there is no obligation to obey.However, it was not what I was afraid of at first.Barbaric tribes, internal harmony, no contradictions, public opinion is extremely loyal.There are important and difficult matters that must be approved by all during the meeting before they can be implemented. There is no so-called majority decision.However, in the end, although the effectiveness of public opinion gradually weakened, it was like a Zhengren wandering in the township school to discuss governance, but he wanted to destroy the township school (see "Zuo Zhuan" Xiang Gong thirty years).However, in the early days, it must be able to influence the administration, so that the authorities have to follow, and the reason is credible.Primitive institutions are always democratic.Later, the interests and conflicts of various parties became deeper, and the nature of politics became more and more complicated, so it became arbitrarily decided by a few people.This is a common phenomenon, beyond doubt.Some people say: China has been autocratic since ancient times, and the political ability of Chinese people is really inferior to that of Westerners. Of course, historical facts are obliterated.It is unnecessary for some people to take pride in these civil rights relics.

The above is the situation within each tribe.As for the whole country, it is a time when there are many tribes.Historians in the past took the lead in saying that the pre-unification period was the feudal era, and this statement needs to be considered carefully.Academic terminology should not be too restricted to the initial interpretation of words.The word feudalism might as well be expanded and supplemented to include the fact that all countries stand side by side. There is no need to fix the wording, there must be someone who seals him.However, there should be a difference between the fact that the nations stand side by side, and there is a person who seals him.I think the so-called feudal era in the past should be further divided into (1) the tribal era, or the pre-feudal era; (2) the feudal era is more appropriate.The so-called feudalism should refer to (a) intimidating and subjugating other tribes to make them obey; (b) breaking up the other tribes and changing their own people as chiefs;

China is known to the world for its early reunification.However, Qin Shihuang's destruction of the six kingdoms took place in 2132 BC in the Republic of China. Since then, it has been traced back to the beginning of history.Therefore, a big country like China did not appear until very late in history. From the tribal era to the feudal era, it is from unrelated to related. This is the first step in unification.Going further to open up wasteland and merge with each other, this is the second step in unification.The progress in this period is all about cultural relations.Because first (1) the national strength must be enriched, and then other countries can be conquered. (2) It is also necessary to expand the territory first. The population will increase and the economy will gradually improve before the national strength can be enriched. (3) It will also expand and expand, and countries will connect with each other, and then there will be fierce struggles. (4) Convenience of transportation, gradual uniformity of customs, ease of rule, etc., are especially necessary conditions for unification.Therefore, from separation to unity is a cultural progress.People who have always studied history only pay attention to the political aspect, and they really miss everything.

To know the gradual unification of feudal countries, one only needs to look at the expansion of their land.Modern writers say that the feudal lands of various countries are thousands of miles away from the Son of Heaven, princes and marquises are a hundred miles away, uncles are seventy miles away, sons and men are fifty miles away, and those who are less than fifty miles away are vassals ("Mencius Wanzhang Part 2", "Book of Rites Kingship") ").The ancient writers said: five hundred miles for the public square, four hundred miles for the marquis, three hundred miles for the uncle, two hundred miles for the son, and one hundred miles for the male ("Zhou Guan" Da Situ).This is of course a fictitious statement, not a fact (regardless of the ancient and modern prose and the books of the philosophers, the system mentioned is a draft drafted by the author, thinking how to do it, not all ancient facts), but it is also true. It must be based on the situation at the time. "Gu Liang" said: "In ancient times, the emperor granted the princes, and the land was enough to accommodate the people, and the people were enough to fill the city and defend themselves." reason for the expansion.According to the difference between modern and ancient texts, what the modern texts represent is often an earlier system, while the ancient texts represent a later period.The counties in the Qin and Han Dynasties had a large area of ​​Fang Baili (see "Hanshu · List of Baiguan Gongqing"). It can be seen that Fang Baili was actually a political area in ancient times, and this is the origin of the title of the great writer.It is more than that, such as "Book of Rites Ming Tangwei" said: "King Cheng granted the Duke of Zhou to Qufu, a place of seven hundred miles." In Lu and Wei, the land is four hundred miles each; the Taigong is in Qi, and the land of the five lords." This is the result of later development, and the speaker mistakenly believed that it was the fact of the first seal.Since the development of various countries has reached this point, those who talk about the feudal system naturally cannot and do not need to cut it down, and it is just like the system mentioned by the ancient writers.In fact, the big country mentioned by modern writers was already a small country in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.The big country mentioned by the ancient writers was the second-class country at that time.To the so-called big country at that time, Zichan called it "local Qi" (Qi Tongji, that is, thousands of miles away, see "Zuo Zhuan" Xiang Gong thirty-five years). "Mencius" said: "There are nine countries in the sea, and there are nine in the distance." ("Liang Huiwang Part One") Only Jin, Chu, Qi, Qin, etc. are sufficient.Such a big country has never been entrusted to others; even in the minds of ancient writers, they thought that a feudal country could not be so big, so talking about the feudal system is not enough.

These big countries, in fact, were the so-called kings who talked about the feudal system at that time. "Book of Rites" says: "There are no two suns in the sky, and there are no two kings in the people" ("Zeng Zi Wen"). This is just a hope of the ancients, but in fact it cannot be so.In fact, China at that time was divided into several regions, and each region had its own king.Therefore, in the Spring and Autumn Period, both Wu and Chu were kings, and in the Warring States Period, the seven countries were also kings.Gong, Hou, Bo, Zi, Nan, etc. are all good names.As a matter of fact, within a country, those who have the highest sovereignty are all called monarchs ("Book of Rites·Qu Li": "The uncle of Kyushu, who enters the kingdom of the son of heaven is called Mu, outside is called a marquis, and in his country he is called a monarch") ).It is the king of this region to which one side returns. "Guanzi·Bayan" said: "When a strong country is many, it will unite the strong to attack the weak to seek hegemony; if the strong country is few, it will unite the small to attack the big to seek the king." The reason why the country only seeks hegemony.Because the grassland in the south has just opened, there are few countries that declare cultural relics, and they are willing to recognize Wu, Chu and other countries as kings; in the north, Lu, Wei, Song, Zheng and other countries may not be willing to recognize Qi and Jin as kings.On the other hand, the Zhou Dynasty, although weak and small, has been called king since ancient times, and no one may necessarily oppose it.At that time, the larger countries were mostly feudal at the beginning, and they had the same surname or relatives. When it was mentioned, they still had a somewhat favorable impression; and in the international order, it was not easy to deny it for a while, so Qi Huan, Jin Wen and so on, there is an act of coercing the emperor to order the princes.Pa is a borrowed word for Bo.The original meaning of Bo is long. "Book of Rites · Kingship" said: "There are Fang Bos thousands of miles away. Five countries think that they belong, and they have strengths. Ten countries think that they are connected, and they have commanders. Thirty countries think that they are soldiers, and those who die have righteousness. Two hundred and ten countries think that Zhou, Zhou has uncles. Eight states, eight uncles, fifty-six officials, one hundred and sixty-eight commanders, and three hundred and thirty-six elders. Each of the eight uncles belongs to the elders of the emperor. The world is divided into left and right, saying Second Uncle." This is another fictitious system, but it is also based on facts.The system of tribute and patrols mentioned in ancient books is probably within a thousand miles of the state (or even smaller. For example, "Mencius·Liang Huiwang Part 2" says that the system of patrols by the son of heaven is "spring saves farming and Make up for the shortage, and the autumn province will hold back and help but not give." This is just the advice of the magistrate of later generations to persuade farmers).Later generations expanded and expanded it, thinking that it is unreasonable to go to the land of Kyushu as mentioned in "Yugong" and other books (running to Mount Tai in spring, Mount Heng in summer, Mount Hua in autumn, and Mount Hua in winter). Hengshan, no matter whether it is going back to the capital and then going out, or running from east to south, from south to west, from west to north, in short, it is too late), but it has its own roots. "Gongyang" said in the fifth year of Yin Gong: "From the east of Shaanxi, the princess of Zhou will come; from the west of Shaanxi, the princess will be called." This is the origin of the saying of the second uncle.There is no such thing as dividing the Kyushu in the "Royal System" into left and right, and each has an uncle. As for the feudal domain at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, it was divided into two, so that Zhougong and Zhaogong each ruled one, which cannot be said to be nothing.However, the so-called eight states and eight uncles are probably nothing more than within the king's body, divided into nine, the emperor governs one of them, and then ordered eight princes, each of which is in charge of one area.This system, if expanded and expanded, is like what Guan Zhong said to the envoy of Chu in the fourth year of Duke Xi in "Zuo Zhuan": "In the past, Duke Kang ordered my ancestor Taigong to say: Five Marquis and Nine Bosses, female recruits, to assist Zhou Room. Give me the shoes of the first emperor, from the sea in the east, the river in the west, Muling in the south, and Wudi in the north." It is equivalent to the uncle of a state mentioned in "Royal System".This is not a fact from the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, but Guan Zhongzhi's theory is not fabricated out of thin air, and it is still based on the small-scale uncle.However, Qi Huan, Jin Wen, etc., allied conquests, implicated as many states as mentioned in "Royal Regime", although their scale is relatively large, their title of overlord is still based on these The uncle of a state can be deduced again.In the Spring and Autumn Period, Jin, Chu, Qi, Qin and other countries had their feudal territories larger than those at the beginning of the Yin and Zhou Dynasties.The scale of its alliance and conquest must be even greater than that at the beginning of the Yin and Zhou Dynasties.In particular, there are many powerful countries, the land is ugly and the same, and they cannot be respected and cannot be called kings (although Wu, Chu, etc. are called kings, they are only recognized by small countries within a certain area).As for the Warring States period, they were honest and blunt, and each established a king title in its own area.However, the situation at this time has evolved to be above the kings. There must be a co-lord, and there has never been a title higher than the king.He borrowed the name of the god of heaven and called him emperor.King Qi Min and King Qin Zhao were once called the East and West Emperors together; later, when Qin besieged Handan, King Wei sent Xin Yuanyan to persuade Zhao Zunqin to be the emperor, and that was the matter.At this time, people who study history selected five chiefs from three generations ago and called them the Five Emperors (so Taihao, Yandi, Huangdi, Shaohao, and Zhuanxu are called the same as gods).Later, it was pushed up again, and before the Five Emperors, three chiefs were selected to illustrate the order of social civilization.I even want to establish a proper name to name it, but this is really exhausting.According to the meaning of "Shiwang Tianxia", the word "自" is added to the word "Wang" to form a character "Huang", and there are so-called "Three Emperors" (see "Shuowen". The word Huangwang has different sounds. Same, it can be seen that it is actually a word).When Qin Wangzheng merged with the world, he combined these two characters and thought that his own title, which has remained unchanged since the Han Dynasty. Countries gradually annexed each other, and among the big countries, the system of prefectures and counties was established. "Wangzhi" said: "In the county of the Son of Heaven, the princes are paid; outside the princes, heirs."This is not always the case, but it need not be, especially as the power of the monarch expands.If the emperor is in his territory, the princes of a big country can implement this system in their own country, and they can also implement this system in the country they swallowed, and feudalism will gradually become counties. (1) During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, many counties were regarded as counties after the destruction of the country, such as Chu for Chen and Cai.There are no records of some demises, but the county names in Qin and Han Dynasties were many the same as the names of ancient countries. It can also be inferred that it was originally a country, not one of the big countries, but a county. (2) There is also the land of Qing Dafu, which is developed and becomes a county.For example, in "Zuo Zhuan", in the second year of Zhaogong, the Jin divided the fields of the Qi family into seven counties, and the fields of the Yangtong family into three counties. (3) Some were established intentionally for the convenience of fighting and defending, such as Shang Jun ruled Qin, and small capitals, townships, and towns were gathered together as counties (see "Historical Records Biography of Shang Jun").As for the county, its area is smaller than that of the county, and it is under the jurisdiction of the county ("Zhou Shu·Zuo Luo Pian": "Thousands of hundreds of counties, there are four counties in the county").If it is separated from the county, it is more barren than the county ("Zuo Zhuan" in the second year of Ai Gong, Zhao Jianzi swore a speech as a master, saying that "the one who conquers the enemy goes to the doctor to receive the county, and the next doctor receives the county").However, these counties separated from the counties, because they are in the border areas, have more troops than the counties, so later on, they were established in places that needed to be controlled militarily (Gan Mao said to the King of Qin: "Yiyang Da The counties, Shangdang and Nanyang, have been accumulated for a long time, and they are called counties, but they are actually counties." Lord Chunshen said to the king of Chu: "The borders of Huaibei are in order, and the matter is urgent. Please consider it convenient for the county." See "Historical Records" for all. This biography).In fact, it is convenient for the county to control the county and protect the county, and the county is transferred to the county.During the Warring States period, the counties of various countries were still newly opened along the border (such as Chuzhiwu, Qianzhong, Zhaozhiyunzhong, Yanmen, Daijun, Yanshanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, Liaodong counties, etc.) .After Qin Shihuang destroyed the six kingdoms, he felt that it was necessary to garrison troops everywhere to suppress them, so he had to divide the world into thirty-six counties. The feudal regime has been in existence for thousands of years, and there is absolutely no reason why there is no reactionary force.So not long after Qin destroyed the six kingdoms, the revolution began.The feudalism between the Qin and Han Dynasties and the early Han Dynasty was different from that of later generations.In later generations, like the feudalism of the Jin Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, it was only out of the selfish heart of the emperor.Most people in the world don't think so.Even feudal people may not dare to have such extravagant expectations for this system, but there is no other way to combine it, and they want to use this to restrain different surnames so that they dare not usurp lightly.The recipients also knew that it was not suitable for the current situation, and they were afraid to be at ease.Therefore, Tang Taizong wanted to confer meritorious officials, but the meritorious officials dared not accept them (see "Book of Tang: The Biography of Changsun Wuji").As for the people between the Qin and Han Dynasties, their views are quite different.At that time, Geishi took feudalism for granted and regarded unification as a change in the situation.Therefore, everyone regards Qin's destruction of the six kingdoms as an act of injustice, calling it a violent Qin, and calling it a strong Qin of tigers and wolves.But what about the country that was destroyed by the six countries before?When Qin destroyed the six kingdoms, it should be restored to its original state. Shouldn't the countries destroyed by the six kingdoms be extinct one by one?If this is difficult, the commentator will have nothing to say.However, the views of most people cannot be logically argued, and the location of their desires cannot be disputed.Therefore, after Qin's death, the princes under the theater immediately decided on the method of enfeoffment.At that time, the feudal people were: (1) after the Six Kingdoms, (2) those who had contributed to the death of Qin Dynasty.The feudalism at this time, because Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty used the excuse of breaking the contract with King Xiang and seizing the land in Guanzhong, the Han Dynasty historians recorded that it seemed that King Xiang was in charge of it alone, but in fact it was at least decided in the form of a meeting.Therefore, in "Tai Shi Gong's Preface", a piece of true news was unintentionally revealed, which is called "the king of princes".At that time, the nobility was divided into two classes: the big one was the king, and the small one was the marquis. Hou, Mengchangjun, Wang Zhujun, etc. The marquis’s title is higher than that of the monarch, and his land should also be larger than the monarch. At this time, the country entrusted is not comparable in size to the monarch of the Warring States Period, so it is not called a monarch).The great princes are all called kings, Xiang Yu regards the overlord as his strength, and Emperor Yi puts an empty name on it, which is also based on the method after the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.Generally speaking, it is not uncomfortable.However, people's views are often behind the times.Although people's hearts think that it is agreed, but the situation is no longer allowed, it can't be maintained.So in only five years, the world has returned to unity.However, the hearts of the people at that time were still not awakened. Han Xin refused to recite the Han Dynasty, and later died at the hands of Empress Lu. Most history readers thought it was the most stupid.In fact, no matter how honest Han Xin was, he would not take Han Gaozu as trustworthy.Han Xin's opinion at that time must have thought that it was unreasonable for the whole world to belong to one person.Han Xinfei was self-confident about his high achievements, thinking that the Han did not seize his king in the end, but that the Han would seize his king, which Xin could not have imagined at the time.I am afraid that this is not the case with Han Xin alone, and the heroes of the early Han Dynasty are all like this.If at that time, Han Xin and others expected that the king of Han would be able to use it to kill himself by using the empty name of emperor, so how could he be willing to do so?Indeed, Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty also relied half on conspiracy and half on strength, not on the emperor's false name.In terms of jurisprudence, based on the customs passed down from ancient times among the nations, the people at that time believed that the righteous one, could the emperor kill the king at that time so arbitrarily?Also still a question.Therefore, Han Gaozu’s kingdom of extermination of different surnames (King Han Xin of Chu, King Pengyue of Liang, Wang Xin of Han, King Yingbu of Huainan, King Zang Tu of Yan, and Lu Wan. Only Wu Rui, king of Changsha remained), although he did not engage in fighting, it was in fact incompatible with others. It is the same miracle to seal the countries under the extinction drama.Not only that, the countries with the same surname granted by Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty later brewed into a great chaos like Wu and Chu, and they were able to be settled in a short period of time; Using the strategy of master father Yan, the princes were ordered to entrust their children with their own countries, and the feudalism in the early Han Dynasty actually survived in name but died out. I am afraid that it was unexpected by the people in the early Han Dynasty. There are originally two feudal elements: one is Juelu, and the recipients are the same as ordinary officials.One is the people of the monarchy, and the descendants are hereditary, so the inherent rights of the tribal chiefs are exclusive to the recipients.The latter is detrimental to unity, the former is not.In the Han Dynasty, Guanneihou had a false name but no land, and later Liehou also did the same ("Document General Kao · Feudal Kao" says: "Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, the so-called Liehou are not only living in their towns, but also serving as officials. The people can issue government orders, but if they are the princes of Guannei, they will only receive the salary in a false name. After Jing and Wu in the western capital, they first ordered the princes and kings not to govern the people, and the Han Dynasty set up internal history to rule them. The reality of the people of the monarchy is that they live in the towns they entrusted, how about being a lord? However, the so-called lords still crack the soil to seal them. As far as the eastern capital, there are first people who have not given the country to the town, but first bestowed a good name. For example, such as King Lingshou and Marquis Zhengqiang. By the time of Emperor Ming, there were four surnames Xiaohou, who were the children of relatives of the Fan family, Guo family, Ming family, and Ma family. King Cang of Dongping has nineteen seals of Marquis Lie, and all princes over the age of five who are able to pay homage to him are ordered to bring them with them. Both of these seals were worn before they had land, and they received their salary. After covering this, the Lie Hou have It is the same as the Marquis of the Guannei."), but it is still necessary to give Lin Lu.After the Tang and Song dynasties, only those who were granted the title were given money, and the material consumption was eliminated. Feudalism has come to this point, and it has no hindrance to politics at all. In later generations in China, those who still had feudalism were native officials in the southwest.There are two kinds of native officials: one is literary, such as Tu Zhi Fu, Tu Zhizhou, Tu Zhi County and so on.One is Wu's, and anyone who is named after a division, such as the Xuanfu Division, the Recruitment Division, and the Changju Division.Listening to its name, it is all the same as Liuguan.In fact, all tribal chiefs are used, and they are inherited according to their inherent laws.Foreign barbarians were naturalized in China, and China gave them names (officials or nobles). This is the same in all aspects, not only in the Southwest.However, those far away from China are not as powerful, and when the state and religion decline, they will rebel and leave, just like the distant countries three generations ago.However, the chieftains in the southwest were originally within the feudal domain, and the power of the past dynasties has gradually become sufficient, and their management methods have also been tightened accordingly.In normal times, there are also people who pay tribute and listen to the call.This is also the same as the tribute and conquest of ancient princes to dynasties, and small countries to big countries.When it (1) violates China's obedience; (2) among its tribes, it fights among itself; (3) among the tribes, it attacks each other;If there is a chance, the chieftain will be abolished and the Chinese government will send officials to manage it.From the Qin Dynasty to the present, in the past 2,200 years, such native officials have not been eliminated. It can be seen that the eradication of the feudal regime must follow the progress of society and culture, and it is not a unilateral matter of politics. In the feudal world, the rise and fall of the so-called dynasties were all based on the orders of the princes and the emperor.This is to use a strong country to seize the status of a powerful country, or to destroy it.In the era of unification, there are four forms of dynastic change: (1) It is the evolution of the old regime.It is further divided into (A) the usurpation by the central officials, and (B) the entry of the local government.The former is like Wang Mang in Han, and the latter is like Zhu Wen in Tang. (2) For the rise of a new regime, such as Han to Qin. (3) It is the entry of foreign races, such as the former Zhao in the Jin Dynasty, the Jin in the Northern Song Dynasty, the Yuan in the Southern Song Dynasty, and the Qing in the Ming Dynasty. (4) For the restoration of the original family, it is like the Ming Dynasty in the Yuan Dynasty.From the perspective of the overall situation, (1) some are still unified, and (2) some are temporarily split.The latter include the Three Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the Five Dynasties.However, this is only a division of the political power. The social culture has been unified for a long time, so the separation of the political power cannot last forever.People who read history in the past, divided political situations into three types: (1) internal emphasis, (2) external emphasis, and (3) both internal and external emphasis.In the world of internal importance, every powerful minister usurps and steals.In a world of external importance, it is easy to worry about the strong and vassal regime.In a world where both the inside and the outside are light, the grassland heroes will take the opportunity to rise; or the barbarians will take the opportunity to invade.But Qin was an exception when he broke because of being too strong. Power should belong to one person, and most people don't need to ask about it; they may even think it's inappropriate to ask about it.So no matter which country, its primitive politics must be democracy.Later, although autocratic politics gradually rose due to changes in the situation, democratic politics will still disappear after a long time.It can be seen from the foregoing.Generally speaking, the failure of democratic politics: (1) Due to the large number of local people and representative meetings, they cannot be convened. (2) The public's discussion is always limited to special affairs, and its ordinary affairs are always carried out by a small number of people who preside over the routine.Over time, these few people have become more and more specialized, and they have become independent in dealing with special affairs that should be asked of the public. (3) However, the general public has no way to correct it because of the slack situation.Autocratic politics gradually formed.This is a change in form.If one seeks the reason, the country becomes bigger and the political situation becomes more complicated. Ordinary people are not interested in big and complicated things and cannot handle them.This is the reason for the system change. However, the democratic system can be abolished, and the principles of democracy can never be extinct.Therefore, many scholars in the pre-Qin period held this argument.Because Confucianism was practiced in later generations, Confucian books were passed on by many people, so there are only many Confucian books, especially the book "Mencius", which is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people.In fact, what Mencius recited was based on the books of Confucianism. It can be seen that his words on Yao and Shun's abdication, and Fu Sheng's "Shang Shu Da Zhuan" are in and out of each other (Sima Qian's "Five Emperors" also adopted Confucian books) .In the Han Dynasty, this meaning was still extremely prosperous.In the first year of Emperor Wenwen of the Han Dynasty, a minister asked to establish a prince.Emperor Wen's edict said: "I am not virtuous, and the gods and gods have not enjoyed it; the people of the world have no aspirations; even if I can't seek the world's sages and virtuous people to Zen the world, but to say Yujian Prince, is to respect me. Virtue, what is the world?" Although this is empty talk, the world is not the private property of one person and one family, and it is clearly recognized in the imperial edict.Later, Sui Meng wrote a letter, asking the emperor of Han to send the world (who is sent, the meaning of visiting and seeking, and simply choosing), to ask for sages, to take the throne of Zen, and to retreat and proclaim himself a hundred miles, which is especially unprecedented in previous dynasties.Allegiance to one surname is not regarded as a matter of course for Confucianism in the Han Dynasty.Liu Xin is a very well-rounded person, and he belongs to the clan of the Han Dynasty, but he helped Wang Mang to usurp the Han Dynasty; Yang Xiong did not oppose Wang Mang, that is because of this.However, only a few people understand this kind of high righteousness, so it will soon fade away, while the righteousness of the monarch and ministers will become more and more prosperous. In ancient times, there was a difference between a king and a king. It is said that we have seen before.The same is true for ministers and people.A minister is a person supported by the emperor, who is loyal to him and his heirs, and tries his best to protect his family, property, honor, and status.It originated from (1) the warriors raised by the warlike chiefs, and (2) his specially favored servants.At the beginning, it was mainly devoted to one person and one family.Later (1) Humanism gradually developed. (2) From the experience of interests, I know that to keep one person and family safe, or to seek their prosperity, is not to disregard the power of all people.Therefore, those who do it gradually have to take into account the public welfare of a country.Although sometimes it violates the interests of the monarch, one person, and the family, it can't be taken care of.是即大臣与小臣，社稷之臣与私暱嬖倖的区别。然其道，毕竟是从效忠于一人一家，进化而来的，终不能全免此项色彩。至民则绝无效忠于君的义务。两者区别，在古代本极明白，然至后世，却渐渐湮晦了。无官职的平民，亦竟有效忠一姓的，如不仕新朝之类。这在古人看起来，真要莫名其妙了（异民族当别论。民族兴亡之际，是全民族都有效忠的义务的。顾炎武《日知录·正始》条，分别亡国亡天下，所谓亡天下，即指民族兴亡言，古人早见及此了）。至于国君失政，应该诛杀改立之义，自更无人提及。 剥极则复，到晚明之世，湮晦的古义，才再露一线的曙光。君主之制，其弊全在于世袭。以遗传论，一姓合法继承的人，本无代代皆贤之理。以教育论，继嗣之君，生来就居于优越的地位，志得意满；又和外间隔绝了，尤其易于不贤。此本显明之理，昔人断非不知，然既无可如何，则亦只好置诸不论不议之列了。君主的昏愚、淫乱、暴虐，无过于明朝之多。而时势危急，内之则流寇纵横，民生憔悴：外之则眼看异族侵入，好容易从胡元手里恢复过来的江山，又要沦于建夷之手。仁人君子，蒿目时艰，深求致祸之原，图穷而匕首见，自然要归结到政体上了。于是有黄宗羲的《明夷待访录》出现，其《原君》、《原臣》两篇，于“天下者天下之天下”之义，发挥得极为深切，正是晴空一个霹雳。但亦只是晴空一个霹雳而已。别种条件，未曾完具，当然不会见之于行动的。于是旁薄郁积的民主思想，遂仍潜伏着，以待时势的变化。 近百年来的时势，四夷交侵，国家民族，都有绝续存亡的关系，可谓危急极了。这当然不是一个单纯的政治问题。但社会文化和政治的分野，政治力量的界限，昔人是不甚明白的。眼看着时势的危急，国事的败坏，当然要把其大部分的原因，都归到政治上去，当然要发动了政治上的力量来救济它，当然要拟议及于政体。于是从戊戌变法急转直下，而成为辛亥革命。中国的民主政治，虽然自己久有根基，而亲切的观感，则得之于现代的东西列强。代议政体，自然要继君主专制而起。但代议政体，在西洋白有其历史的条件，中国却无有。于是再急转直下，而成为现在的党治。 中国古代，还有一个极高的理想，那便是孔子所谓大同，老子所谓郅治，许行所谓贤者与民并耕而食，饔飧而治。这是超出于政治范围之外的，因为国家总必有阶级，然后能成立，而孔、老、许行所想望的境界，则是没有阶级的。参看下两篇自明。