Chapter 9 Chapter 6 The Rise of Folk Liberal Academics: The Pre-Qin Philosophers

During the great changes from the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, the most important thing was the rise of civil free learning. It is difficult to describe the details of ancient science.According to the Spring and Autumn Period, academics were still unique to the aristocratic class. Aristocratic feudalism, based on patriarchal clan.The state is the extension of the family.In the ancestral temple, the closeness of the seniority of the sacrifices stipulates the status of the nobles.The genealogy in the ancestral temple is the political status. Before the big sacrifice, there will be hunting, the emperor will sacrifice, and the princes will help the sacrifice.After the sacrifice, there is a banquet, which shows the relationship and status between each other.The "Zai" of the ancestral temple and the "Xiang" who is in charge of the ceremony are the people who preside over these positions.There are songs, prayers, and oaths for the sacrifice.The preservation of hymns, prayers, and affidavits will become later history.

The Zhushi in the ancestral temple is also in charge of astrology and climate, and the calendar of the Ming Dynasty, so that the people can cultivate crops according to the time.It also records the disasters passed down from ancestors and their explanations. In ancient academia, there was only one "ritual".Ancient scholars have only one "history". With the decline of feudalism and the decline of the royal family of Zhou Tianzi, historians were gradually distributed among various countries, which is the first thing that the ancient royal family's academics gradually spread.

The ancient princes were selfless in their history, and wished Tuo Yan Cheng Wang to give Lu "Zhu, Zong, divination, history", this is also the history of Lu.Wei Taishi Liu Zhuang died, and the corpse was announced: "Liu Zhuang is not a minister of the widow, but a minister of the country." .” This is also the history of Wei.Qi and Jin also had their own historians, and the books said "Zhao Dun killed his lord", "Cui Zhu killed his lord", and Ming was not a lord of historians.The official historians were all gradually distributed in various countries from the Zhou Dynasty.Sima Qian claimed to be the ancestor; "Shi Dian Zhou Shi. Between Hui and Xiang, Sima went to Zhou Shijin. They were scattered, or in Wei, or in Zhao, or in Qin." In the fifteenth year of Zhao Dynasty, King Jing of Zhou said that he was a native of Jin and said; "In the past, the great-great-grandfather, Sun Boyi, was the master of Jin's classics. He thought it was a great government, so he called it Jishi. And Xin Youzhi's second son Dong Zhi, so there was Dong Shi. Bai Changqian went to Zhou Zhiqi, and Taishi Dan (dan) went to Zhou to enter Qin. In the chaos of the Jin Dynasty, the Taishi Tu Mi returned to the Zhou Dynasty with his diagrams.

Li was originally a sacrificial ceremony, and it was promoted as many ways and habits of life among the ancient aristocratic class.This kind of life has religious connotations and political utility.Religion, politics, and academics still maintain the closest ties. The shaking of the ritual means the collapse of the feudal system. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Lu had suburban rites, which are also the rites of the Son of Heaven.Ji Sun's offering sacrifices to Mount Tai is also a ceremony for princes.Baqi dances in the court, and those from the three families are Yongche. All indecent manners gradually emerged from the extravagance of the nobles.On the one hand, the aristocrats were exaggerating the etiquette one by one, and on the other hand, they paid no attention to the etiquette one after another. As a result, there was gradually a difference between "knowing the etiquette" and "ignoring the etiquette" among the aristocrats, and some so-called scholars began to show their eyes among the aristocracy.

The gradual development of the aristocratic class in the Spring and Autumn Period, and its exquisite etiquette and etiquette, can be proved by the fact that the monarchs and ministers of all countries paid each other with poems.Found in Zuo Zhuan, he wrote poems sixty-seven times.It began with Duke Xi, flourished in Xiang and Zhao, and declined in Ding and Ai.The son offended Jin Wengong and said: "I am not as good as Zhao Shuaizhi's writing, please make me decline." Since then, due to frequent recruitment among various countries, a generation of polymaths with knowledge of etiquette has emerged among various countries, such as Jin has Shu Xiang, and Qi has Yan Ying. , Zheng Youzi Chan, Song You Xiangxu is also.

In the process of the gradual degeneration of the aristocratic class, the educated who know the etiquette are often at the bottom, while the uneducated and the uneducated are at the top. As a result, the study of the royal family gradually spread to the people and became a new school of thought. "Wang Guan" is aristocratic studies, and "Hundred Schools" is folk studies. The first of the hundred schools of thought was Confucianism. Shuowen: "Confucianism, the name of sorcerers." Liji Xiangjiuyi Note; "Skills, like arts." six arts.Zhou Guanbao's family "taught the sons of the country the six arts and six rituals".The six arts include five rites, six music, five shooting, five imperial controls, six books, and nine numbers.In the biography of Dadai Libao: "The prince is eight years old, he learns small arts; he cuts his hair, he learns great arts." Bao's six arts are both major and minor, and they were almost the compulsory subjects for the children of nobles at that time.

Those who are good at this kind of art and can teach the nobles with friends are called "Artists", or "Warlocks", or "Confucianism", which means the source of Confucianism in the future.Warlocks can not only be taught by friends, but knowledge of books and numbers can be regarded as masters, knowledge of etiquette and music can be regarded as junior ministers, practice of archery and imperialism can be regarded as generals and soldiers, and they are also the way for scholars to enter the body.Jin Zhao Duntian was in Shoushan. Seeing Ling Zhe was hungry, he said: "Three years have passed in the eunuch." Du Zhu: "The eunuch is learning." Qu Li; , Learning is a mission.Since there are people who are eunuchs, scholars and teachers, there must be people who are teachers.Artists can then serve as teachers for scholars seeking officials, and then the life of artists is gradually separated from the support of nobles and becomes independent.

Confucianism was founded by Confucius. Confucius, a native of the Song Dynasty, was a nobleman at first, and took refuge in Lu. His father's uncle, Liang He, was placed in the lower class of Lu's nobles. Confucius used to be a commissioner and a farmer, and he often held low positions in noble families.However, Confucius learned all kinds of etiquette of the aristocratic class from this. Confucius was a nobleman when he was young, so Confucius called himself;Tanzi came to Lu, and Confucius followed him to ask about the ancient official system, which is an example.The Zhou family moved eastward, and the rich and old pickaxes were lost.Among the eastern countries, Lu is the only one who can still preserve the rituals of Zhou.Therefore, Zhong Sunqiu said that Lu "adhered to Zhou Li".Zhu Tuo said that Boqin granted Lu, "Zhu, Zong, Divination, History, Beiwu, Dianshu." When Han Xuanzi arrived in Lu, he first saw Yixiang and Spring and Autumn, and sighed that "the rituals of Zhou are all in Lu".

Confucius lived in the state of literature, so he achieved great success in his studies. Confucius not only understood all the rites in force at that time, but also noticed the evolution and origin of rites.Confucius then began to criticize all the indecent behavior of the nobles at that time. When the son entered the Taimiao, he asked about everything.Or ask: "Who says the son of the Zou people knows the rituals?" The master said: "Is it the rituals?" Gai Confucius didn't know all kinds of ritual vessels and rituals in the Lu Tai Temple, so he said that these things and utensils should not be in the Lu Tai Temple. Therefore, I asked to express my intention.In the fourth year of Lu Zhaogong, King Ling of Chu met the princes in Shen, and the envoy asked Xiangxu and Zheng Zichan in Song Dynasty.Xiang Xu said: "A small country learns it, and a big country uses it. Do you dare to recommend it?"Zichan said: "A small country has a common duty, dare you not recommend it?"Both Zichan and Xiangxu were said to know the etiquette at that time, but they only stopped at the actual response.Confucius, on the other hand, not only knew about the etiquette of nobles at that time, but actually had some ideals and ambitions, and wanted to reform the morals of the world.

Confucius' criticism, on the one hand, is based on the concept of history, according to King Wen and Duke Zhou, from the origin of ritual.On the one hand, there is the concept of humanity, which is viewed in the sense of propriety from the perspectives of destiny, nature, benevolence, filial piety, loyalty and forgiveness, etc. The heaviest and greatest ritual is sacrifice. Confucius pushed the psychological root of the original sacrifice as "repaying the original and reversing the beginning".This is the filial piety that originated from human beings.The promotion of filial piety is called "benevolence" and "loyalty and forgiveness".It is the most important principle for human beings to get along with each other, that is, to maintain human society forever.Confucius pointed out that the psychological state of human beings is rooted in nature, and if this is the case, life and death, the group, self, heaven and man, and other major issues have all been integrated into one piece in Confucius' philosophy.

A quick look at Confucianism seems to have a tendency to go back to the past, and it seems to have a tendency to maintain the patriarchal and feudal class.In fact, Confucius has pointed out the highest principle of various combinations in human society.Gou Neng Mingci, straight from the past to the present, does not matter retrospectively, and will never be ossified by class power.Although Confucius did not directly denounce ghosts and gods, or suspected that Confucius was still a patriarchal society, Confucius actually had an enlightened and reasonable answer to the human world and heaven, the real world and the immortal world.Therefore, Confucian thought is actually formed by combining the past political, historical, and religious aspects, and it is really suitable for China to form a peaceful and unified country in the future, so as to extend its long-standing cultural national character.Confucian thought is also derived from this kind of national character. Confucius served as a military officer in the state of Lu, and the master fell to the capitals of Jisun, Shusun, and Mengsun.However, Confucius failed to achieve his ambition.Since then, he traveled to Wei, Song, Chen, and Chu countries, and returned to Lu in fourteen years. Confucius was old. When Confucius traveled around, his ambition was not to be a certain country or a certain family, so he said: "There is a way in the world, and it is not easy to change." Confucius actually went beyond the narrow concept of country and nation at that time, and contributed his ideals to the world at that time. The so-called "world".This kind of official spirit was still inherited by later scholars, and finally created a unified China. While Confucius was active in politics, he recruited many students. Because of his ambition to reform the world, Confucius paid more attention to education in addition to political activities, and opened the first free folk lectures in Chinese history. Before Confucius became Lu Sikou, he had many disciples, such as Yan Yuan, Zilu, Ran You, Zaiwo, and Zigong's disciples.After Confucius returned to Lu in his old age, he had many disciples, such as Ziyou, Zixia, Zengzi, Zizhang, and those with sons.Most of the disciples of the older generation of Confucianism are more interested in political and practical activities; the disciples of the younger generation are more inclined to study poetry, calligraphy and literature.But Confucius liked his senior disciples. Confucius' political activities failed, but Confucius' educational career left a great influence. Confucius was the first one who began to spread the knowledge learned from the nobility to the people.Confucius was the first one who began to transform the knowledge in ancient aristocratic temples into an academic vision shared by human society. It used to be said that Confucius edited poems and books, ordered rites and music, and praised Yi to write the Spring and Autumn Period. This is the so-called Six Classics.Its first are all official books.It spread among the people through the hands of Confucius.The Spring and Autumn Period is the creation of China's first folk history.The Chinese nation is a historical nation, and Confucius is not only the greatest historian in China, but also the first historian. The one who continued Confucianism was Mohism, and the founder of Mohism was Mozi. Mozi's family background cannot be tested, and he seems to be a laborer.In ancient times, prisoners were often used as workers, and "ink" was the first of the five punishments that were the lightest. Captives and criminals who worked as laborers must be punished with ink. Mo Zigai sang new meanings based on Mo Tu, so it is called "Mo School".Mo is the name of the family school, not the surname of Mozi. Confucius taught without distinction. It is said that Mozi also received teachings from Confucianism, but later he created his own teachings. Most of the Confucian scholars taught by Confucius were not aristocrats, but they were close to them.Mo is a worker and lives in the country, so he is more susceptible to the academic atmosphere than farmers; and workers live in groups, so it is easier to form a family of their own. Mozi held a completely opposed attitude towards all the life of the aristocratic class at that time, so he advocated "indecent propriety" and "non-pleasure". Confucianism pays attention to etiquette and music, and these are all new rituals of Confucianism.Mozi is not polite and happy, so he is also "not Confucianism". Mozi opposes the main concepts of ritual and music, and opposes their extravagance.Mozi's positive theory is "frugal use".Mozi believed that the most useless and extravagant rituals of the nobility are funeral rites, so Mozi advocated "festival burial". Confucianism recognizes that aristocratic rites have many elements. Confucianism only needs to rearrange the aristocratic rites that were popular at that time so that they include the common meaning of all human beings in society.Confucianism attaches great importance to funeral rites, because it can teach filial piety, loyalty, and benevolence.Confucianism believes that only by working hard for the dead can we best discover the human heart of filial piety, loyalty and benevolence.From the point of view of the general poor labor economy, the Mohists felt that the funerals and burials of nobles were the most wasteful and unnecessary. Confucianism says that funeral rites are the filial piety of the son of man, but Mohism says that we should "regard the father of a man as his father", and that it should be used on the living rather than the dead, so Mohism says "universal love". Confucianism advocates filial piety, based on the "benevolence" of human nature, which only refers to the natural tendency and natural requirements of human beings.The Mohist advocates universal love, which goes against people's hearts, so the Mohist would say "the will of heaven". To love both according to God's will, to regard the father of man as his father, and never waste and extravagance in personal or family life.Under the idea of ​​universal love, Mozi wants all human beings to live an equal life. The Mohists regard the most laborious life in society at that time, that is, the life of prisoners and conscripts, as the standard life for all human beings to be equal. They put forward the will of heaven in the theoretical organization, and put forward Dayu in the lessons of history.They said: "If it is not the way of Yu the Great, it is not enough to be ink." Therefore, the Mohists start with universal love, and take self-suffering as the extreme. But the Confucianism and the Mohist schools have a common spirit, and they all stand on the standpoint of all mankind to criticize and oppose their aristocratic life at that time.The spirit of Confucianism is relatively moderate, and it can be said to be the right wing against the nobility; the Mohist school is more violent, and it can be said to be the left wing. The following schools of thought in the Warring States Period cannot escape the scope of Confucianism and Mohism. The extreme rightist is a rising legalist.The extreme leftist is a rising Taoist.The Legalists, the Yin-Yang Schools, and the Strategists all belong to the Right.Taoism, farming, and famous schools all belong to the left.But from another perspective, the rightists are all positive and moving forward, because they are relatively moderate and must remain optimistic.The leftists often tend to be negative and inverted, because they are more intense and tend to be pessimistic. After the death of Confucius, the aristocratic class became degenerate and became more radical, and Confucianism temporarily turned to a negative path, such as Zixia and Zengzi. Zeng Zi was in charge of fees and was respected by Ji Sun's family; Zi Xia lived in Wei and was a teacher of Wenhou.Marquis Wen of Wei and the Jisun family, who usurped the throne and were good at the country, according to the spirit of Confucianism, should be overthrown.However, the Confucianism at that time was not only powerless to overthrow them, but still had to be respected and served by them.So it gradually turned into an attitude of high self-esteem and arrogance, which is a perverted etiquette.Zixia, Zengzi, Tian Zifang, Duan Mugan, and Zisi are all like this, which is completely different from what Confucius called "rituals". Turning back from such a negative state and embarking on a new positive path became the so-called Legalists.Li Ke, Wu Qi, and Shang Yang can be representatives. The Jisun family could not really appreciate Confucius, but they admired the Confucian masters Ran You and Zilu.Wei Ting may not be able to really respect Zixia and Tian Zifang, but he cannot do without Li Ke and Wu Qi.Because of using Li Ke and Wu Qi, he had to pay respect to Zixia and Tian Zifang.Confucius and Zixia adopted a non-cooperative attitude to maintain their academic dignity.The disciples of Ran You and Li Ke exchanged their true deeds for their belief and status at that time. Legalists intended to re-establish the upper and lower order of the aristocratic class, which is still the spirit of Confucianism.However, when Wu Qi was in Chu and Shang Yang was in Qin, they were attacked by ordinary nobles and killed themselves. Both Wu Qi and Shang Yang merely used the method already practiced by the Eastern Wei State to transfer it to Chu and Qin.However, the Jin family was weak, Wei Xin usurped the throne, and there were no nobles, so the reform was easy.Although Chu and Qin were less influenced by feudal culture, the power of the traditional aristocracy was greater than that of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Therefore, the new laws of the East were implemented in Chu and Qin, and they were hit by the old forces. The power and status of You Shi gradually increased, but their spirit of hard work gradually declined.From Wu Qi to Shang Yang, he gradually became a disloyal attitude of using magic to maintain his salary. Shen Buhai taught Han Zhaohou to control his subordinates with spells. The ruler himself was silent and did not see what he liked, so that the subordinates had no choice but to use their talents and sincerity, and then the ruler followed with punishment and rewards.However, Shen does not harm himself, but uses magic tricks to spy on the private interests of the king, in order to cater to him.Therefore, Shen Buhui Prime Minister Han has not made any great achievements for nearly twenty years.In the future, you officials will not be able to make real and great contributions to other countries, unlike Shang Yang and Wu Qi. As you officials gradually gained power, they not only maintained their positions by means of magic, but refused to be loyal to each other. They also formed factions and recruited foreign aid, scattered in the governments of various countries, and sought their own mutual benefit.This has become the so-called "vertical and horizontal" situation. Representatives of this faction are Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi. Although this shows the layer-by-layer corruption of Youshi.However, on the other hand, it is actually the gradual extension of the status and power of civilian scholars, and even exclusively over the monarchy of other countries. Mohism should have been insulated from politics, but Mohism is still on the road of getting closer to politics. Mozi often sent his disciples to the governments of various countries.At that time, the princes and nobles of various countries may not really appreciate Mozi's theory, but Mohism is good at defense, so it is enjoyed by those in power in various countries. On the whole, Confucianism is almost the Qing guest of the nobles, but Motu has become the escort of the nobles.However, the special status and special power of the aristocratic class were gradually exploited from the activities of Confucianism and Mohism. You Shi gradually gained power, and their theories gradually shifted.They begin to notice their own origins and life issues.This is already in the middle of the Warring States period. The spirit of their attention has been diverted from the nobles to their own side.Roughly speaking, it can be divided into five factions: This can be represented by Xu Xing and Chen Zhong. This school advocates "the emperor and the people cultivate together" and "eating without relying on others", which seems to be the highest expression of the Mohist spirit. , which can be represented by Tian Pian and Chunyu Kun. This school enjoys a life of wealth and honor, parasitizes under the shelter of the nobles, and sings the high theory of not being an official. This can be represented by Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi. This faction is active only in the role of officials, "vertically and horizontally", that is, to contact members of the officials of various countries, and to form a force with each other through diplomatic routes, hoping that they will not fall. This can be represented by Meng Ke. On the one hand, this faction opposed Chen Zhong and Xu Xing, advocated "dividing credit and making things easier" and recognized political life.On the one hand, he opposed Tian Pian and Chun Yukun, advocating that scholars should "not trust the princes" and that officials should be exchanged for salaries.On the one hand, he opposed Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi's use of concubines to seek salary and position, and advocated advancing and retreating with courtesy. This can be represented by Zhuang Zhou. Theoretically, this faction is completely opposed to political undertakings. This group is more intense than Xu Xing and Chen Zhong, but it does not necessarily advocate hard work, and it is more moderate than Xu Xing and Chen Zhong.Because he is opposed to political career, he neither wants to have a culture of ritual and music, nor does he want to work for labor, let alone be a parasitic official, so he can only limit himself to a life of meditation. Although the above-mentioned factions have different views, the center of their thinking and discussion is all from their own perspectives, unlike the Confucian and Mohist schools who spoke to the nobles.This shows that the status of civilian scholars has gradually increased, while the importance of the aristocracy has gradually declined at that time. Gongsun Yan and Zhang Yi "feared the princes when they were angry, and lived in peace in the world", their power can be imagined.The second is like Chunyu Kun, who traveled to Qi and Liang, and received excellent salutes everywhere.Tian Pian raised thousands of bells and hundreds of disciples.Meng Ke called Lian Jian, saying that he "does not agree with what he wants", but also "dozens of chariots behind him, hundreds of apprentices, passed on to the princes".Although Zhuang Zhou was in seclusion, he was also in harmony with the great monarch.Chen Zhongzi was hungry in Yuling, and his reputation was enough to shock neighboring countries.Xu Xing also has dozens of disciples.At that time, the prestige and status of civilian scholars were even higher than that of Kong and Mo. Civilian scholars gradually gained power, and the aristocracy paid more and more respect to them.So from the monarch to raise the virtuous to the son to raise the virtuous. The king's cultivation of talents began like Wei Wenhou and Lu Mugong, but it was more prosperous than Qi Wei and Xuan Wang.For example, King Xuan of Qi gave way to Wang Dou, Yan Chu (chu), and King Yanyi to Zizhi, King Qin Zhao kneeled down to see Mr. Zhang Lu, King Yan Zhao built a golden platform and served as his teacher Guo Kai, all of which were the most outstanding kings at that time. Good role model. The son's cultivation of virtuous persons is mainly composed of Mengchang, Pingyuan, Xinling and Chunshen. Mr. Mengchang was the first to open up the atmosphere.His father Jing Guojun was the younger brother of King Qi Wei, and his father and son were ministers of Qi Wei, Xuan and Min.Mengchang also met Qin Zhaowang and Wei Ai, and he was granted the title of Xuehou, and he was called Xuehou, neutral.His momentum and status are such, but Mr. Meng Chang is extremely corporal. However, under the sect of the fourth prince, there are few chaste scholars and many false scholars.I only see the arrogance of You Shi, but not their real contribution. The four sons only got the most virtuous people in Pingyuan.Such as Zhao She, Yu Qing, Gongsun Long and the like, yes.Lord Xinling has Hou Ying, Zhu Hai, Mao Gong, and Xue Gong, but they are no longer as good as Ping Yuan.Mengchang is the hero of the rooster and the dog thief, only one Feng Chen is also the ear of the strategist.Chunshen's sect is the most ordinary, only "three thousand pearls".This is not the case of no scholars at that time. The four princes contended for the name of raising scholars, and they called them "three thousand people who eat under the door". How could there be such a scholar?If fakes are mixed in, real scholars will not come.Just like Lu Zhonglian, like a dragon swimming in the sky, how can the four gentlemen be able to achieve it?However, Zhonglian, as a scholar, can restore Qin and Zhao's great plan to fight against each other in the world within a few minutes of talking. This kind of courage and artistic conception is not easy to see in future generations.It is precisely because of the era of high morale that this great achievement has been achieved. From then on, the idea of ​​anti-traveling officialdom and anti-literature became aroused, which is the characteristic of academics in the later years of the Warring States period.There are three authors: one is Laozi, the other is Xunqing, and the third is Han Fei. Lao Tzu's theory, its main points, are against advocating wisdom, against restlessness, and against wandering officials and diners, all of which are aimed at the phenomenon at that time. Lao Tzu advocates that those who are above have no governance, and those who are below will return to farming. Xunzi presided over the rule of ritual.Rites are human relations, and Xunzi wants to redefine the social order with his new human ethics. Xunzi divides people into four classes: 1. Great Confucianism, who understands ethics and class, understands the way of hundreds of kings, is the Son of Heaven, the Sangong, and only this can "law the kings".2. Small Confucianism, obeying the law and abiding by the law, is a prince, a doctor, and a scholar, and this is only the "Queen of the Law".3. All people are workers, farmers, merchants, and merchants. If they are in a job, they will be livestock, and if they are not in a job, they will abandon them.Fourth, traitors are the only way to go against the times and kill without mercy. Xunzi took the sage as his teacher, and the kingship as the boundary between right and wrong, and determined his academics to be one. Han Fei advocates the rule of law. He is a narrow-minded nationalist who advocates the rights and interests of a class and seeks prosperity.He has a strong class concept and thoroughly advocates the self-interest of the rulers of the aristocratic class. Han Fei is one of the princes of Han, and he has never forgotten his own private status.In the Warring States Period, besides Han Fei, there was Qu Yuan, who was also a scholar representing the aristocratic consciousness.The Qu family is a big family in Chu, so Qu Yuan would rather lose his ambition than become a wandering official.These are all dedicated to one school in one country, which is different from other scholars. He said that the upper and lower interests want to conflict, and he said that the three ways of governing a sage are profit, fame, and prestige.He cites sexual evil and advocates anti-gratitude. He wants to drive the people into farming and fighting, and completely opposes the people who talk about literature.His ideal state is "without books and slips, the law is the teaching; without the words of the former kings, the officials are the teacher; the selfless sword is defended, and the beheading is the courage." The old, Xun, and Han schools have different arguments, but the arrogance of the arrogance of officialdom at the end of the Warring States period is the same. The discussions of the other three schools have all paved the way for the unified government of Qin and Han. The transformation of academic thoughts in the Warring States Period, from Confucius and Mozi to Xunqing and Han Fei, is precisely a reflection and a portrayal of the gradual degeneration of the aristocratic class and the gradual exaltation of civilian scholars.