Chapter 29 Chapter 7 Equality and Inequality
The Sino-British peace treaty signed on the Nanjing River on August 29, 1842, which marked the end of the Opium War, was named the "Nanjing Treaty" by later generations.It has thirteen articles and is undoubtedly a harsh and unequal treaty.
From the point of view of the specific terms, the reason why the Nanjing Treaty is unequal is mainly due to three items: 1. Land cession (paragraph 3); part); 3. Pardon "traitors" (paragraph 9).The first paragraph declares peace, and the thirteenth paragraph stipulates the ratification process, which does not involve equality or inequality; the release of British prisoners in the eighth paragraph is also in line with the prevailing international law practice at that time and now; The equality clause in this unequal treaty.
In addition to the above clauses that are relatively easy to judge today, the treaty also has three provisions: 1. Five-port trade (paragraph 2); 2. Abolition of trade (the first half of paragraph 5); .These economic and trade terms are difficult to define simply as equality or inequality.
Judging from the norms of international relations prevailing today, the way a country chooses to conduct foreign trade is a matter within the scope of sovereignty.In this regard, the UK's imposition of these regulations on China is undoubtedly a manifestation of power.
From the perspective of the history of social and economic development, the one-port trade and mercantile system constrains the development of China’s foreign trade, which is not conducive to China’s transformation from a self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy to a market-based industrial and commercial economy; Every payment of tariffs has become a gray bargain for bargaining, which hurts foreign businessmen and benefits the country.Should these be kept?
Therefore, theoretically speaking, the best solution is for the Qing government to reform itself, take the initiative to open up after making internal preparations, and integrate with international practices in terms of specific practices.But in historical reality, this possibility is equal to zero.
Later history shows that the tide of the West has impacted the old model of China, and the production and life of the people (mainly in the coastal areas) have been greatly damaged. In this sad song, various social and economic phenomena unprecedented in China have emerged.The five-port trade, the abolition of merchants, and the new tax rules, as the main purpose of the British war, reflected its attempt to bring China into the world trading system, which made the bosses in London, Manchester, and Mumbai reap big profits, and caused China to be unprepared. And hastily opened under precautionary circumstances.This is not good for China, but objectively provides a new way for China to get rid of the cycle.
We might as well imagine that if China's opening up was not in the middle of the last century but later, what would happen to China's current situation?
Historians should have the ability to speculate from a distance.
However, the above understanding is only an analysis of today's people, and it does not match the thinking of people at that time.
Zhang Xi mentioned in the previous chapter, in his detailed record of the treaty negotiations "Fuyi Diary", in addition to the bargaining price for the indemnity, there is only one defense of the Qing side: "Huang (Entong), Xian ( age) and the two elders went out of the city to meet with the Yi people, and the Yi people were not allowed to bring their family members." This may be because Zhang Xi's knowledge is limited and he cannot understand the meaning of the content of the treaty.Li Xingyuan, then the chief minister of Jiangsu, saw the reaction of the treaty, which made people think deeply:
, and in the agreement, such as redemption of the city, price of cigarettes, parallelism of officials, and exoneration of traitors, how can the aftermath be dealt with forever... (emphasis is marked by the quoter)
Li Xingyuan was an official of Zhuhe at that time.He didn't directly comment on the content of the treaty, but "big book" to shame it, probably these things can be done in private and cannot be said publicly.What he dislikes the most is that "the barbarian woman and the great emperor wrote together". As a Confucian official who has learned a lot about classics and history, he instinctively feels that he cannot give an account to history.Liang Zhangju, the former governor of Jiangsu Province who had retired from illness at a critical moment in the war and wrote a lot of books after returning to the field, was still on his way home at this time. After receiving the news, he wrote to Governor Liu Hongao of Fujian, expressing his indignation at the opening of two ports in Fujian:
The Liang family is from Changle, Fujian, and it is located at the mouth of the Minjiang River where Fuzhou goes to sea. The opening of Fuzhou makes them afraid.
In contrast, Liu Yunke, the governor of Zhejiang, obviously had a much "deeper" feeling for the treaty. He wrote a long letter to Qiying, Yilibu, and Niujian in Nanjing, asking ten questions in one breath:
1. After the signing of the treaty with Britain, other countries followed suit, and the Qing Dynasty did not know the details. What should we do?
2. The United Kingdom has already "appeased" in Guangdong and given Yinliang (referring to the Yilu-Yishan armistice agreement). What should I do if I don’t handle it well and cause trouble?
3. The United Kingdom has repeatedly said that it will go north to Tianjin, but this time Tianjin is not listed as a port. How can it "can stop its desire to go north, so as not to be ashamed afterwards"?
4. All treaty ports have rules and regulations for taxation and taxation. If Britain blocks merchant ships in the future, will the Qing government take care of it?If the Qing government takes measures, won't it cause another disturbance?
5. In the future, if there are lawsuits between civilians and "barbarians" and the British side refuses to turn in the culprits, as in the case of Lin Weixi before, how should it "put down barbarians' violence and bring peace to the people"?
6. If the British side suspects and obstructs the reconstruction of coastal defenses in various provinces after the war, what should they do?
7. After the "traitors" are pardoned, what should we do if some bandits turn to the British side and harass the people, and the British side gives them asylum?
8. If the British infiltrated into non-trade port areas and aroused public resistance, the British side must blame the Qing side and "raise troops to question the crime", what should we do?
9. The British "built barbarian buildings" in Zhoushan, "with the intention of occupying the city", if all the treaty ports are like this, so that "in the blink of an eye, I don't own it", what should I do?
10. The decline of China lies in the leakage of silver. It is easier to leak silver after the opening of new ports. If the Qing government bans silver exports, it will provoke provocations. What should we do?
This is a new "Ten Considerations", which is a deep-seated reflection on post-war Sino-foreign relations.Liu Yunke, who has no international knowledge at all, raises a ridiculous question from today's perspective. It is not as realistic as the previous article "Ten Things to Worry" about the internal problems of the Qing Dynasty, but it truly expresses the seriousness of a responsible official. The future situation at home and abroad, especially the worries about how local officials in treaty ports will handle "barbarian affairs" and resolve disputes between "barbarians" among the people.
This letter by Liu Yunke did not directly comment on the Treaty of Nanjing (this is also his consistent style of doing things), but expressed his views on the Treaty in a tortuous way by asking questions: the Treaty is too brief, and on many specific issues Lack of clear regulations with a long-term perspective, so the operation is arbitrary, and a slight mishandling may cause provocations.This war has made him terrified, and he is most afraid of fighting again.In his letter he said:
As for how to prevent these "frauds", he did not specify.I don't know if he has no countermeasures, or if he has a way not to talk about it, he just returned the question to Qiying, Yilibu and Niujian.
Therefore, we not only have to ask, what is Liu Yunke's real intention in writing this letter?He just expressed his dissatisfaction with the treaty signed by Qi, Yi and Niu?Or let the Three Constitutions make a remedy?The three constitutions are all officials presiding over negotiations. Is Liu implying that they will continue to negotiate with the British side?So as to make more specific provisions on the ten questions he raised?
This is a dangerous signal.
In the history of China, the Treaty of Nanjing is, after all, an unprecedented event, and it is reasonable for people of all colors to discuss it. Moreover, in an autocratic society, the opinions of courtiers are often of little importance, and what is really effective is the imperial decree.
Emperor Daoguang finally decided to make peace because of a forged notice. General Jiang Ning forwarded Chang Zhendao's letter to let him know the conditions of the British side. Second, parallel rituals can be accommodated; third, Hong Kong "temporarily rewards" (not ceded), Fujian and Zhejiang coasts are temporarily allowed to trade, but long-term residence is not allowed.This was his original vision for a future peace treaty.
On August 18, 1842, Emperor Daoguang received a memorial from Qiying, understood the British request more clearly, and made some concessions: 1. Xiamen, Ningbo, and Shanghai allowed him to trade, but once again emphasized that "long-term residence is not allowed." Second, Fuzhou is not allowed to open up, and Quanzhou can be changed to Quanzhou as a last resort; Third, Hong Kong still insists on "rewarding and lending"; Fourth, no longer object to compensation, but only ask how the money will be raised.The decree was sent to Qiying on August 24.
On August 22, Emperor Daoguang received a list of "discretionary items" from Qiying Daily, and decreed: 1. The business system "does not need to be changed"; Compensation); 3. The customs duties for the British ships should be paid by the vice-consul at the customs instead of doing business; 4. The issue of Hong Kong was not mentioned in the decree. and", the five-port trade issue still adheres to the original discussion.It is worth noting that the decree also mentioned three other items: 1. "The grounds of the coastal provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Taiwan, Zhejiang, Jiangnan, Shandong, Zhili, and Fengtian" (when referring to non-port areas) "No barrage of ships 2. After the war, the provinces repaired the coastal defense fortifications, "for the sake of suppressing foreign pirates, not for the defense of the barbarians, so there is no need to raise doubts"; 3. Other provinces attacked the British ships because they did not clearly conclude a peace treaty. "Don't use it as an excuse (to start a war)."This decree reached Qiying on August 27.
On September 1, Emperor Daoguang received Qiying's memorial and made full concessions, "everything will be handled as discussed", but he also decreed:
The meaning of this passage of Emperor Daoguang is not very clear. It seems that he ordered Qiying and others to continue to discuss "all urgent matters" with the British side after the treaty was completed.He did not specify the specific content of "all critical events", but seemed to think that the treaty could not "put an end to future troubles".In this sense, he and Liu Yunke are surprisingly consistent in thought.The decree reached Qiying on September 7.
On September 6, Emperor Daoguang received the treaty submitted by Qiying, and his attention has shifted from the treaty itself to the outside of the treaty. He decreed: 1. Regarding "business debts", in the future when British businessmen trade with Huamin, all debts will be cleared by themselves , the Qing Dynasty is no longer responsible for this; 2. Regarding the amnesty of traitors, "If the people have committed other crimes, our country should handle it as usual, and it has nothing to do with the country"; 3. Regarding tariffs, "each customs has certain regulations", Even if Chinese merchants transported British goods to the mainland, they "passed through the customs and had their own tax regulations" (Emperor Daoguang seemed not to understand the provisions of the tenth clause of the treaty, and the language and tone of the decree seemed to deny the necessity of this clause); It is said that before the silver was cleared, the island of Zhoushan in Dinghai and the small island of Gulangyu in Xiamen were allowed to stay temporarily for a few boats, and they would leave after the opening of each port." The time limit has been changed from two conditions for opening up to five parties and payment of indemnity to one condition for opening up to five parties).The decree this time, Emperor Daoguang made it clear:
, we must understand simplicity and avoid future troubles, and we must not settle for the present and do things hastily. (The emphasis is marked by the citer)
In other words, after the signing of the treaty, Emperor Daoguang still ordered Qiying to continue negotiating with the British side on relevant matters.The decree reached Qiying on September 13.
From the above series of edicts, we can clearly see Emperor Daoguang's attitude towards the Treaty of Nanjing.The content of this treaty is far from his original idea, but Nanjing, the former capital of the Six Dynasties, has become a candle before the storm and has to be approved.However, he was unwilling to do so, so he ordered Qiying and others to continue negotiating to restore some of the interests of the "celestial dynasty".This is where the disaster comes from.Emperor Daoguang, who had no international knowledge, did not know where the national interests lay!The content of the negotiation he asked for was either insignificant or far-fetched.
Although the treaty has been signed and approved by the imperial pen, Emperor Daoguang came up with a new method ingeniously - "adding notes" to the treaty.
The Liangjiang Governor's Office, located on Changjiang Road in the center of Nanjing today, is a large courtyard.It later became the Palace of the Heavenly King of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Grand Presidential Palace of the Nanjing Provisional Government, and the National Government of the Kuomintang regime, with an exceptionally prominent status.Until today, it is still the political decision-making center of Jiangsu Province.Over the years, I don't know how many decisions have been made and how many government orders have been issued.
In the summer and autumn of 1842, the Liangjiang Governor's Office also acted as a witness to history.The imperial envoy, Guangzhou General Qiying, Sipinqing titled Zhapu Deputy Commander Yilibu, and the owner of Liangjiang Governor Niu Jian staying here are discussing the peace treaty with Britain in fear and anxiety.
Although Yilibu's family member Zhang Xi believed that "Yizhongtang" was the mastermind of the decision-making, and Niu Jian's assistant Jiang Ning's governor Huang Entong felt that the "Niu Zhijun" was the backbone of the peace talks, but the real power was only in the hands of Qiying.He is the only imperial envoy.
Qiying is the clan, that is, the descendants of Nurhachi.His father, Lu Kang, had served as a scholar of the Dongge University, a minister of the household department, and a commander of the infantry.The prominent family background makes his official career open.Since 1806, Yinsheng was appointed as the additional head of the clan's mansion, and has been transferred in Beijing officials, and has held more than 50 positions.Among them, the most interesting thing is that he has served as Minister of the Ministry of War, Minister of the Acting Fanyuan, Minister of the Ministry of Rites, Minister of the Ministry of Industry, Minister of the Ministry of Households, and Minister of the Ministry of Officials, but he has no experience in the Ministry of Punishment.
In 1838, Qiying transferred to General Shengjing from Rehedu.Soon, the Opium War broke out, and he also worked hard to strengthen the coastal defense, without the slightest hint of peace. On February 24, 1842, Emperor Daoguang appointed him General of Guangzhou.When he explained everything and went to Beijing to ask for training as usual on March 28, it happened that Emperor Daoguang received Liu Yunke's "ten things to worry about" memorial.We don't know the real intention of Emperor Daoguang sending him to Guangzhou, but it can be seen that the date of his arrival in Beijing changed his fate for the rest of his life.
As a Manchu, as a relative of the emperor, Qiying has less Confucianism than those official officials who have passed the Jinshi and entered the Imperial Academy.This was indisputably a major flaw in Chinese society at the time.Perhaps it is this kind of defect that makes it less sexual and moral when thinking about problems, and more direct and utilitarian.A few days after arriving in Zhejiang, he saw through the inevitability of defeat, and regardless of the righteousness of "Yi Xia", he wholeheartedly wanted to make peace with "Ni Yi".This is consistent with Yilibu and Qishan who are both royal relatives and nobles.
In the previous chapter, we can see that Qiying didn’t take the series of decrees of Emperor Daoguang’s “suppression” very seriously, and secretly kept in touch with the British side, acting just like Qishan during the Guangdong negotiations.But he is not as direct and straightforward as Qishan.Probably the shrewd Yiribu beside him also gave him a lot of ideas.And in the end, unlike Qi and Yi, all his actions were approved, which was mainly due to the situation, and at the same time let people appreciate his political manipulation skills.
As far as the content of the Nanjing Treaty is concerned, Qiying is against the purpose.This can be determined from a series of decrees that quoted Emperor Daoguang on the treaty. When Qiying signed the contract on August 29, 1842, he only received the decree of August 22.Although he also sent Huang Entong and others to negotiate with the British side, demanding that Fuzhou not be opened, they stopped taking any action after being rejected.As for the prohibition of "long-term residence" in the treaty ports and the "no need to change" the trading system stipulated in the decree, he simply did not raise it to the British side.However, as an imperial envoy with the authority to "do things cheaply", Qiying's act of signing the contract does not seem to violate the purpose, because the definition of "doing things cheaply" cannot be found in the classics, laws, and ancestral systems.
In terms of historical reality, although the Nanjing Treaty was a harsh and unequal condition, Qiying, who signed it, was not guilty at all.The alliance under the city has no choice.As a defeated country, no matter how harsh the conditions are, it cannot but accept it.
For a war without hope of victory, the sooner it ends, the better!
However, after the signing of the treaty, the atmosphere in Liangjiang Governor's Office did not ease because of this.Qiying faced two major problems: one was how to account to Emperor Daoguang (he had not yet received the decree from Emperor Daoguang approving the signing), and the other was how to deal with the Sino-foreign situation after the treaty was signed.There is no reason to think that he is satisfied with the content of the treaty. Like Liu Yunke and Emperor Daoguang, he is thinking about various issues in the next step.There is also a persuasive sentence in Emperor Daoguang's decree:
In fact, even if Emperor Daoguang didn't say anything, he fully understood his identity, and his honor, disgrace, fortune, and misfortune were tied to the "Heavenly Dynasty".It is likely that after repeated consideration, he decided to continue negotiating with the British side to remedy the content of the treaty and the matters that have not been clarified.
On September 1, 1842, the third day after the signing of the Nanjing Treaty, when Qiying burned incense and worshiped Emperor Daoguang to report the signing, another note to Pu Dingcha was also sent to the gate of Liangjiang Governor’s Office .That is to say, before he received the order from Emperor Daoguang ordering him to continue negotiations, or the letter from Liu Yunke fully concerned about the content of the treaty, he took the initiative.
Hangzhou, Beijing and Nanjing completely thought of going together.
I have excerpted Liu Yunke’s letter in detail above, and listed the edicts of Emperor Daoguang in detail. Here I will also quote Qiying’s note to Pu Dingcha in more detail.Because, in these documents, lurks a diplomatic failure no less than the military failure of the Qing Dynasty in the war.Qiying's note was particularly serious.It is the most deadly diplomatic document in modern Chinese history that I have seen.
Qiying's note is divided into text and appendix.The text puts forward the rationale for the negotiation:
The meaning of this passage is that the Qing side has agreed to the conditions proposed by the British side. In order to make the treaty "permanently complied with", the Qing side also has an "alliance statement" that must be agreed with the British side in advance.There is a hint of hope in the words that the British side will "repay with kindness".It seems that Qiying's significance to the international treaty seems to be unclear, and it has just been signed and then submitted.And the term "mengyan" reminds people of the ancient form of "Jie Binghuimeng".
In the list attached to the note, twelve items of negotiation content were proposed:
1. Among the five ports of trade, apart from Guangzhou, which has been given to the British to live in Hong Kong, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Shanghai should build "guild halls" in the ports. When the British ships come to Hong Kong for trade, the British should live in them. After the trade is over, the British should "" Returning to the ship and returning to the country", "it is not necessary to live in the club all the year round".
[Explanation] This negotiation can be seen in the decrees of Emperor Daoguang on August 18 and 22.Qiying wanted to follow the previous Guangzhou model to deal with the issue of residence rights for British residents in other ports.The "guild hall" in the article refers to the commercial hall.According to Guangzhou's past practice, foreigners who come to China can only be active in the commercial area. When the trade is over or the trade is stopped in winter, they should return to the country or live in Macau.However, the method proposed by Qiying directly violated the second paragraph of the Nanjing Treaty:
I don't know whether Qiying didn't understand the meaning of the clause drafted by the British side, or whether he revised the content of the treaty according to the order of Emperor Daoguang.
2. In the future, if Chinese businessmen owe money to British businessmen, "it can only be pursued by officials, not repaid by officials."
[Explanation] This negotiation was caused by the Nanjing Treaty, which stipulated that the "business owed" 3 million yuan should be compensated.The edicts of Emperor Daoguang on August 22 and September 6 both required that this be an exception.According to Qiying's memorial, before the signing of the treaty, he sent Xianling and others to negotiate with the British side and received a verbal promise.Qiying was afraid that it would not be safe, so he wanted to confirm it in written form this time.
3. Only cargo ships are allowed to travel between the five ports of trade, and "it is not convenient for military ships to travel around." Outside the five ports, British cargo ships and warships are not allowed to enter.
4. After the war, the Qing Dynasty stationed troops along the coast and repaired coastal defense fortifications. "In order to prevent foreign pirates, the United Kingdom has a good relationship and should not have doubts or obstruct it."
5. Guangdong, Fujian and other places attacked British ships because they did not know that a peace treaty had been concluded.
[Explanation] These three negotiations are based on the decree of Emperor Daoguang on August 22, while the third and fourth items can be found in the eighth and sixth questions of Liu Yunke's letter.However, according to international practice, the third and fourth items belong to national sovereignty. Since the Nanjing Treaty did not give the British side these rights, the Qing side did not need to discuss with the British side at all.
6. After the conclusion of the peace treaty and the payment of this year's indemnity, Britain should withdraw its troops from Nanjing and Zhenjiang and return them to Fujian, Guangdong, Zhejiang and other places.Zhoushan and Gulangyu Island, which the British temporarily occupied, were also "inconvenient to park more warships", and the British army "is still suitable for stationing on ships, instead of going ashore to live elsewhere."
[Explanation] Regarding the withdrawal of British troops, Article 12 of the Treaty of Nanjing has detailed provisions.Qiying negotiated again on this point, reflecting his concern about whether the British side could implement the treaty, which was the same as Liu Yunke's (see the second and ninth questions in his letter).The British ship on the Nanking River is the sword hanging over Qiying's head. Therefore, under the conditions stipulated in the treaty, the British side is required to reassure.Perhaps, this is not true, he did not study the wet ink treaty carefully at all?
7. The British troops in Zhoushan and Gulangyu Island "shall not rob the people" nor "block and collect taxes" on Chinese merchant ships.
[Explanation] The first half of this negotiation, that is, the Qing government, which lost its governing power, asked the British side not to disturb the people of Zhoushan and Gulangyu Island. "No more blocking of trade between Chinese provinces".Probably Qiying believed that these profit-loving "Niyi" would not refuse to take profits, and Liu Yunke even made a big comment on this (see the fourth question of his letter).
8. "Since the British merchants are doing business everywhere, it is difficult to guarantee that they will not have to negotiate with the people in the interior. In the past, British cargo ships in Guangdong used to use distant people as their excuses, so they could not be judged according to Chinese laws, and they heard that they wanted to set up a trial office. , just like the United Kingdom suppressed Mina. But in the 19th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the Buddhist (French) French