Chapter 10 Chapter 9 Reform

·Professional and amateur ·Throttling and open source ·TV rights · Conflict with Havelange · "Olympic Project" Cecil Lancelot Cross, a New Zealander who ran for the presidency of the International Olympic Committee with Samaranch in 1980, said this before his death: "What Samaranch inherited was a 19th-century IOC and what he leaves behind will be a 21st-century IOC." Indeed, when Samaranch took over as president of the IOC, the Olympic Games were at a low ebb, and some practices and regulations were no longer suitable for the development of the situation at that time.It was he who faced the reality, determined to reform, and solved the unresolved problems for many years in one fell swoop, thus bringing gratifying changes to the Olympic movement.

Samaranch first started with the unresolved issue of professional and amateur for many years. This question seems very simple today, but it was an extremely sensitive issue that has survived for many years.In a way, this is a matter of the principles of the Olympic Movement. What are pros and amateurs, and what's the difference between them?To put it simply, amateur athletes have another livelihood and do not receive any payment or rewards for participating in sports competitions.Professional athletes make a living by participating in competitions, and will receive generous material rewards after winning. The definition under the "Stockholm Regulations" adopted in 1947 is: "Amateur athletes are those who participate in competitive sports solely for pleasure, to benefit physically, mentally and socially. For them, sports are just a kind of entertainment, and No direct or indirect material gain is involved."

The ancient Olympic Games put great emphasis on the amateur principle, and the rewards for the winners were limited to garlands made of holy olive branches, palm branches and other spiritual encouragements.Coubertin appreciated this very much and introduced this principle into the "Olympic Charter".He also kept reminding future generations that the professionalization of athletes was one of the important reasons for the disintegration of the ancient Olympic games. Participants in the ancient Olympic Games had to sign a prepared oath before competing.The oath reads: "I, the undersigned, declare in my name, an amateur in accordance with the Olympic regulations concerning amateurism."

Samaranch's previous six IOC presidents emphasized the amateurism of the Olympic movement.Even Brundage, who is open-minded, has always adhered to the amateur principle.In his speech at the 68th session of the IOC in Warsaw in 1969, he stated: "The Olympic movement is far more than a four-year sports festival. It is a philosophy of education and life itself, and a manifestation of the comprehensive development of human intelligence, physiology and morality. The comprehensive development of human beings should also fully reflect the amateur spirit." Biographer Hans Klein also wrote:

"Brundage saw sport not as an end in itself, but as a means by which amateur sportsmen prepared for other, more important tasks in life." Brundage refused to introduce any minor reforms to this principle, and for two decades he shut out everything that had to do with business.When he left office, he still insisted: "Times have changed and will continue to change. But the Olympic ideal should never change." Brundage's words seem to be reasonable, but ideals are based on reality.The so-called ideal that is completely divorced from reality is not only impossible to realize, but it can no longer be called an ideal itself, but can only be called a fantasy.

In fact, absolute amateurs never existed.According to legend, in ancient Greece, the honored competitors also received certain material rewards more or less, explicitly or secretly. The most famous injustice involving amateur and professional disputes is the "Thorpe Affair".At the 1912 Stockholm Olympics in Sweden, Thorpe, an extraordinary American sports genius, won two gold medals in men's pentathlon and decathlon with absolute advantage, and became the number one news person in this Olympic Games.But half a year later, American racists framed Thorpe as a "professional" athlete.The following year, the International Olympic Committee shocked the world by recovering the gold medal awarded to Thorpe.Thorpe had nowhere to complain, and died in 1953 amidst grief and poverty.The last words he left to the world were: "Give me back my gold medal!". In 1982, the International Olympic Committee rehabilitated Thorpe's injustice, and his lost gold medal was also handed back to his daughter by Samaranch in 1983.However, Thorpe's injustice has left a deep regret in the history of the Olympic Games.

In the late 1940s, Canadian female player Barbard Scott won the world speed skating championship. Her hometown of Ottawa was so excited that she decided to give her a car.After hearing the news, the International Olympic Committee immediately warned her not to violate the amateur principle, otherwise she would be disqualified from participating in the Olympic Games.Scott had to reluctantly give up, and the following year, she won another gold medal at the 5th Winter Olympics.Immediately after the race, Scott accepted a car from his hometown and turned professional. Although Brundage did a lot of useful work for Samaranch to enter the International Olympic Committee at that time, it can even be said that without Brundage's support, Samaranch might not even be able to enter the door of the International Olympic Committee .But Samaranch did not therefore echo Brundage on this important issue.During Brundage's tenure as IOC president, Samaranch pointed out in some public speeches that sport could be an end for some people rather than an adjunct to the rest of his life.

Samaranch's remarks were completely opposite to Brundage's point of view, which aroused Brundage's dissatisfaction.Brundage also privately accused Samaranch of "disorderly speech." But Samaranch did not stop there.He pointedly pointed out: "The Olympic movement must be open to all the best athletes in the world, i.e. earning money to the extent allowed by their own international sports organization." It has long been obvious to all that professional athletes have participated in the Olympic Games, and Samaranch just pointed out this fact clearly and unequivocally.As a German newspaper commented in 1981: "As for the amateur principles that Brundage regards as sacred dogma, Samaranch believes that it is only a matter of nature. Professional athletes have been in the Olympic Games for many years. Now we should do it. Tell everyone the truth and we want to bring this all to light.”

The so-called amateur principle has actually existed in name only.Athletes in socialist countries are basically professional athletes. They receive wages from the state, specialize in sports training and competitions, and receive material rewards from the state after winning. Not only socialist countries, but athletes from other countries who participated in the Olympics also received financial support from manufacturers.If there is no corporate support, relying on the salaries they earn from other occupations, I am afraid that even the systematic training before the competition will not be possible, let alone participate in the high-intensity Olympic competition.In addition, award-winning athletes in most countries can receive huge rewards from manufacturers, social groups and the state.

The amateur principles of the Olympic Games do not adapt to the real situation, so it is very difficult to implement.Although the "Olympic Charter" stipulates that the Olympic games are only athletes and athletes, not between countries Participating in competitions does not represent the country.But journalists and governments always count the total number of medals based on the country, and regard the achievements of individual athletes as the honor of the country, and reward the athletes who have won medals heavily.The International Olympic Committee has nothing to do about it, and has no choice but to let it go.

The International Olympic Committee has no choice but to turn a blind eye to athletes from some countries who are called students but are actually professional athletes.If the amateur principle is really strictly implemented, it is conceivable that the Olympic Games may not be held. In fact, the IOC has already realized this problem.In the early 1970s, the International Olympic Committee informally agreed that athletes should accept the sponsorship and bonuses awarded by the association during the preparation for the official competition in accordance with the regulations of the individual sports associations. In 1974, the IOC also adopted a new definition of "amateurization".That is, it is stipulated that athletes are allowed to receive wages during their participation in sports, and athletes are allowed to receive sports scholarships during their studies.However, this method of "holding the pipa and half covering the face" cannot finally solve the problem. The debate over the qualifications of the contestants has not stopped, and cases of condemnation of award-winning athletes for accepting huge rewards still occur from time to time. Following the trend of history, Samaranch revised the relevant provisions of the "Olympic Charter" in 1981, removed the word "amateur", and entrusted various international individual sports associations to formulate their own terms and guidelines, and the associations confirmed whether the contestants were qualified as amateurs. in principle.As long as the association approves, the IOC also agrees.The first to benefit from Samaranch's reforms were tennis players. Tennis is a sport in which only professional players can truly perform at the highest level.It is for this reason that difficulties arise in the identification of athletes, which was absorbed into the Olympic Games earlier and then removed from the Olympic Games.After 64 years of controversy, at the Seoul Olympics, it was accepted by people again and re-entered the stage of the Olympic Games. The return of professional tennis to the Olympic Games is the result of Samaranch's determined reform.As the president of the International Tennis Federation Chatelier said: "Without Samaranch, there would be no step today." In November 1990, at the 96th session of the International Olympic Committee in Tokyo, Samaranch once again presided over the revision of the "Olympic Charter", clearly stipulating that athletes' qualifications for participation are: 1. Respect the spirit of fair play and non-violence, and demonstrate it on the sports field; 2. Do not use drugs and methods prohibited by the rules of the International Olympic Committee or International Sports Federations; 3. Respect and abide by the medical regulations of the International Olympic Committee; 4. It is not allowed to use my name, image or competition results for advertising purposes during the Olympic Games; 5. Registration for or participation in the Olympic Games should not depend on any economic considerations. Since then, the amateur principle has completely disappeared from the Olympic Charter.But this has not changed the nature of the Olympic movement. The Olympic Games still do not provide any material rewards to the winning athletes. This is an important feature different from other competitions, especially the Grand Prix. Since the 1970s, with the increase in the number of members of the International Olympic Committee and the expansion of its scale, the budget has gradually become "stretched".Both Brundage and Killanin adopted measures to limit expenditures in one way or another, and Samaranch made a bold decision when he took office: all air tickets for IOC members to go out for meetings and inspections will be provided by the IOC. will bear.In the past, these expenses were settled by the committee members themselves, which affected the enthusiasm of the committee members to some extent.He also gave each committee member a high-end Sony radio to understand the dynamics of various countries in the world, because sports activities do not exist independently, and their development is closely related to political and economic situations.Of course, Samaranch didn't do this because he didn't understand the family background of the International Olympic Committee. He had his own ideas: for an organization, "cutting expenses" is important, but "open source" is more important. As a shrewd businessman, Samaranch is very aware of the importance of money.If a business wants to develop by leaps and bounds, it must have sufficient funds.When he formed the first Spanish roller skating team in his early years, he realized that the development of sports is inseparable from money.After taking over Vidiborg, the first thing Samaranch thought of was to enrich the treasury of the International Olympic Committee and obtain a stable source of funds for the development of the Olympic movement, so the "Olympic Plan" came into being. The "Olympic Project" is Samaranch's great contribution to the Olympic movement, and it is also one of several major achievements after he served as the president of the International Olympic Committee. The "Olympic Plan" was signed by the International Olympic Committee and Adidas President Horst Dassler on May 27, 1985, and will be renewed every year thereafter.It can be said that this is the first program outline in the Olympic movement to link sports with business.According to this outline, Adidas will provide a subsidy to the International Olympic Committee every year, and the specific amount varies according to the situation.This is completely different from the previous practice.In the past, companies did not directly fund the International Olympic Committee, but provided sponsorship to the Olympic Organizing Committee to promote their products. The International Olympic Committee only charged a certain percentage of commercial advertising fees to the Organizing Committee after the Olympic Games.According to the provisions of the "Olympic Plan", Adidas will provide funding to the International Olympic Committee once a year, making the International Olympic Committee have a fixed source of funds for the first time in history. This idea was first proposed by Horst Dassler.Dassler is the second president of Adidas Sports Products Co., Ltd. The former president was his father Adolf Dassler.Adidas' name is composed of the first two letters of "Adolf" and the first three letters of "Dasler" with an "i" in the middle. Dassler's idea is not entirely out of Commercial purposes, to a greater extent, are due to his personal friendship with Samaranch. Horst Dassler often said: "Samaranche is not our director, but our friend." Perhaps it was a shared vision of the relationship between business and sports that brought them together, and their friendship was a testament and a model of the combination of business and sports. Horst Dassler always extended a hand of friendship when Samaranch needed help the most.During Samaranch's tenure as ambassador to the Soviet Union, Horst Dassler was active and won the support of African and European national committee members for Samaranch's election for the chairman of the International Olympic Committee.Due to the repeated setbacks of the Olympic Games in the 1970s and the reduced influence of the Olympic Games in the early 1980s, the International Olympic Committee faced an economic crisis.After hearing the news, Horst Dassler offered to sign the "Olympic Plan" with the International Olympic Committee and provide regular funding to the International Olympic Committee. The Olympic movement is a sacred sport, so she has always opposed commercialization.Brundage has repeatedly declared that he is firmly opposed to the commercialization of sports. For commercialization, the key lies in how to understand it.All practices that are contrary to the Olympic spirit and abuse sports or athletes for commercial purposes are opposed.But in fact, there should be another understanding of business, that is, sports must be combined with business, and there must be economic value in sports.For non-profit commercial activities that contribute to the development of the Olympic Movement, not only should not be abandoned, but should be striven for.In a commodity society, if any organization or individual is completely divorced from commercial activities, it is impossible for him to survive. The same goes for the Olympic movement.The "pure" Olympic ideal without the "smell of copper" advocated by Coubertin can actually only exist in paper and ink.In the modern Olympic Games, even if it is free funding, it is unrealistic to exclude 100% profit. Funding is different from advertising. It can receive benefits in the short term. Its role is to establish one's own status and image in the hearts of the funded and in society. From a long-term point of view, it is still profitable.From this perspective, it has a commercial nature.But it is not a naked sale, and it is beneficial to the funded, and sometimes it can even save and develop the funded. Of course, the IOC's financial resources come from multiple channels.In addition to the regular funding from Adidas, the International Olympic Committee mainly takes commissions from television broadcast rights, advertising fees and subsidies during the Olympic Games, and the most income is the commission from television broadcast rights.Since 1980, the International Olympic Committee has stipulated that two-thirds of the television broadcast fees of each Olympic Games should be reserved for the Olympic Games Organizing Committee, and one third should be handed over to the International Olympic Committee. half of all income. With the popularization of television and fierce competition among TV giants, the Olympic TV broadcast fee has also risen.For the IOC and the Olympic Organizing Committee, this is indeed a good thing, but the IOC is most concerned about how much it can earn.For this reason, the International Olympic Committee has decided to directly participate in the negotiation of television broadcast fees starting from the 24th Olympic Games. As the Olympic Organizing Committee, of course we hope that the higher the broadcast fee, the better, but the International Olympic Committee has other plans.High rebroadcast fees are good, but they have to be paid by the TV giants willingly.Anyway, the Olympic Organizing Committee is a one-shot deal, but the International Olympic Committee has to deal with them every four years, and the chicken that lays golden eggs cannot be killed with one knife. Negotiations on the TV broadcast fee for the Seoul Olympic Games went smoothly.Negotiations on broadcasting fees for the Barcelona Olympics have had some setbacks.Awad, a member of the Barcelona Olympic Organizing Committee and deputy mayor of Barcelona, ​​rejected the offer of US$360 million from the International Olympic Committee to sell broadcasting rights to the world's largest tycoon, the United States, at a price lower than US$309 million for the Seoul Olympics. The three American TV broadcasting companies are competing, but the quotations are generally equal to those of the organizing committee.The organizing committee was not in a hurry and continued to auction the broadcasting rights.Negotiations began shortly after Barcelona was awarded the hosting rights in April 1986.IOC representative Dick Pound was ready to accept the US price in the first round of negotiations, but Awad insisted on waiting for another round of negotiations in order to continue to increase the price. Negotiations and judgments continued on and off for nearly two years.During negotiations in New York at the end of 1988, Awad was still prepared to continue raising the price.Kim Yun-ryong, a member of the Executive Committee of the International Olympic Committee participating in the negotiations, had no choice but to call Pound and Awad out of the negotiation hall and ask them to accept the offer from the ABC.Only in this way did the two sides reach an agreement: ABC purchased the broadcast rights of the Barcelona Olympic Games for US$401 million, plus an advertising fee of US$10 million, setting a record for the highest TV broadcast fee.ABC paid only $50,000 to buy out the broadcast fee for the 1960 Olympic Games. Of course, there are others who are coveting TV broadcast fees, such as Nebbiolo, president of the International Amateur Athletics Federation. At the Seoul Olympics, the track and field finals were originally scheduled to be held in the afternoon according to custom.But due to the time difference, Americans can only watch the game late at night or early in the morning.Originally, track and field competitions are more intense than other sports, so the ratings are relatively high, but the late-night broadcast will reduce the ratings, and the American TV giants will inevitably lower the price of broadcast fees, and the income of the International Olympic Committee and the Seoul Olympic Organizing Committee will also increase. Then lower.Therefore, the Seoul side wants to advance the track and field competition time to the morning, but this must be agreed by Nebbiolo. Nebbiolo has always been known for his ego and stubbornness.He rejected the request on the grounds that it would affect the athlete's competitive state. After Samaranch heard about this, he discussed with Nebbiolo in the autumn of 1984 whether he could consider the interests of the Olympic Games and agree to Seoul's request.This time Nebbiolo agreed, but he put forward an additional condition, which is to increase the proportion of TV broadcast income transferred from the International Olympic Committee to the International Amateur Athletic Federation.Samaranch flatly rejected Nebbiolo's request. In May 1985, Samaranch announced that "the competition schedule for the Seoul Olympics must be negotiated between the Olympic Organizing Committee and the international federations", which was tantamount to sending Nebbiolo a warning.So Nebbiolo held several talks with Seoul in Rome. In the end, Seoul paid 20 million US dollars for TV broadcast fees in exchange for Nebbiolo's agreement to change the time of track and field competitions.Nebbiolo used the money to set up the International Athletics Foundation in Monaco, which the IOC underpaid by $20 million, which Nebbiolo himself chaired. Sponsorships are second only to TV broadcast money in the money.Taking the Barcelona Olympic Games as an example, the sponsorship amount of 12 major sponsors amounted to more than 200 million US dollars, including 30 million US dollars of Coca-Cola, 25 million US dollars of MAS chocolate company, 22 million US dollars of VISA credit card, and 2 million US dollars of 3M company. 10,000 US dollars, Philips 20 million US dollars, Nikon 20 million US dollars, Mitsui 18 million US dollars, Bausch & Lomb 15 million US dollars and so on.Apparently the funding is not free, the signs of these companies can be seen everywhere in the streets and alleys. The modern Olympic Games is not only an arena for athletes, but also a battlefield for commercial competition. It is a joy to fight openly and secretly. No one gave gold medals to manufacturers, but people still talked about and praised a certain manufacturer for gaining the upper hand in the competition, and they arranged seats for them intentionally or unintentionally.The development of sports is inseparable from the support of business, and the development of business needs the help of sports.Huge bonuses attract athletes to fight hard, and global fame tempts major companies to donate their money for sponsorship.Sponsorship is mainly used to build competition venues and other supporting facilities, but the International Olympic Committee also draws a small amount of funds for its own activities. In addition to TV broadcast fees and corporate sponsorships, advertising is another important source of income for the IOC and the Olympic Organizing Committee. Samaranch once said at a press conference in August 1988: "Our methods have changed, not because we want to, but because our society has changed and it is unrealistic to try to repeat the old ways. Yes. But we still respect those views that are conducive to the promotion of the Olympic spirit. It is for this reason that I say that as long as I am the President of the International Olympic Committee for one year, there will be no billboards in the Olympic venues. This rule It’s best to keep it until the Atlanta Olympics, and the future will belong to my successor.” The absence of billboards in the arena does not mean that there are no advertisements.Don't you see, isn't the Kodak or Fuji film in the competition field an advertisement?These two companies have always regarded the Olympic Games as an important battlefield to improve their prestige and attack each other.Sometimes the two families openly set up a arena in the arena: each side put a table with their own film rolls, and let reporters use it for free.After the reporter finishes shooting, he will develop a print for you free of charge, and then please continue to use your own film. In fact, they are not at a loss.No matter how many reporters there are, no matter how many films they use, to them, it is just a drop in the bucket.What's more, the propaganda role of these reporters is inestimable. Are some sponsored drinks in the arena considered advertisements?Moreover, many athletes can earn millions or tens of millions of dollars as long as they wear a certain brand of sportswear or sneakers during the competition. Aren't they advertising for the manufacturer?Does the International Olympic Committee have the right to restrict what brands of sportswear athletes can wear? In 1936, Owens of the United States broke four world records in the Berlin Olympics.Since Owens used Adidas products, Adidas has since become a famous brand.The rising star Nike shoes are also "famous all over the world" because many outstanding athletes wear them to achieve good results in the Olympic Games. Through the "Olympic Project" signed with Adidas and commissions from television broadcasting, sponsorship, and advertising, the "coffers" of the International Olympic Committee are increasingly enriched. After Samaranch was elected president in 1980, the total funding of the IOC was $2 million. On January 1, 1990, the funding of the IOC increased 50-fold to $105 million.The financial budget of the International Olympic Committee was 5.8 million Swiss francs in 1980, and reached 24.43 million Swiss francs in 1990.In other words, in 1980, the International Olympic Committee had less funds and a higher budget; by 1990, although the budget had increased by five times, the funds had increased by 50 times. "The Times" commented on this: "If Brundage knows about it, he will be shocked, and Coubertin, who also pays attention to practical results, will also be gratified by it." With money, Samaranch did not squander it casually.So far, the cars and airplanes used by the International Olympic Committee are still borrowed from companies such as the German Mercedes-Benz Motor Company, although the International Olympic Committee is fully capable of providing its own modern means of transportation.The reason why Samaranch is so "stingy" is because he knows that the IOC's funds mainly come from the Olympic Games and must eventually be used to develop the Olympic movement.The Olympic Solidarity Fund was established based on Samaranch's consideration. The revised Olympic Charter states: "All proceeds from hosting the Olympic Games must be used to develop the Olympic Movement and sport." "The purpose of the Olympic Solidarity Fund is to provide assistance to those NOCs recognized by the IOC, especially to those NOCs most in need." Some small countries claim to have no money to participate in the Olympic Games, and the IOC can support them; some sports are still in the development stage, and the IOC can support them.The money comes from a solidarity fund established by the IOC. When Samaranch was president of the International Olympic Committee, the International Olympic Organization had a Federation of National Olympic Committees in addition to the International Olympic Committee.In a sense, its function is similar to that of the International Olympic Committee.The President of the Federation of NOCs is Mario Vazquez Rania.Vazquez is a Mexican billionaire, the chairman of the Mexican Telepisa TV network, owns more than 30 newspapers and magazines around the world, and has capital in enterprises or commercial organizations in many industries.A few years ago, he even wanted to pay for the purchase of United Press International in the United States. Vazquez has great authority in the field of world sports, even rivaling Samaranch.Its authority in Latin American sports is even more supreme.There are rumors that he also tried to run for the presidency of the International Olympic Committee. In order not to cause two centers in the world sports, but also to enable the Olympic movement in each country to develop better, Samaranch adopted a separate governance approach.He divided the National Olympic Committee Federation into five committees according to the five continents.The International Olympic Committee draws one-third of the TV broadcast fee for each Olympic Games, and distributes this third directly to the Five Continental Committees through the International Olympic Committee's solidarity fund in different proportions. It only keeps 7% of the TV broadcast fee. Taking the 1988 IOC Solidarity Fund as an example, the total fund was 8.7 million U.S. dollars, of which 3.37 million U.S. dollars was used to hold various training courses, and the rest was distributed as follows: Africa: $1.01 million Asia: $900,000 Americas: $780,000 Europe: $610,000 Oceania: $470,000 It can be seen from the above figures that the less developed regions get more funds, thus ensuring the balanced development of sports in various regions.At the same time, the dependence of the continental committees on the IOC increased, thus weakening the power of the NOCs and Vazquez. For the IF, Samaranch did the same. The role and influence of the International Sports Federation is far greater than that of the National Olympic Committees, and in the projects it manages, its authority often exceeds that of the International Olympic Committee, and sometimes it directly communicates with the International Olympic Committee. Committee clashes.The most obvious example is the conflict between the IOC and FIFA. Throughout Olympic history, soccer has been the subject of controversy over eligibility for both amateurs and professionals.After the Second World War, Lianye football was popularized in most countries in Europe and South America. They sent players to participate in the World Cup held every four years since 1930, and entered the Olympic football as a young amateur player into the professional team. springboard. At the same time, Eastern European countries except Yugoslavia took advantage of the situation because they did not announce the implementation of a vocational system.They have implemented a system called amateurs, which is actually a professional system—called a hidden professional system by Western countries, and they have an obvious advantage in competing with Western amateur teams in the Olympics.In the 8 Olympic Games from 1952 to 1980, the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries have always occupied a monopoly in football games. In 5 of them, they won the top 3 or even the top 4. This football system in Eastern European countries aroused strong opposition from Western countries. During the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games, most Western European countries refused to participate in the football match, which put the Olympic football match in crisis. In 1960, FIFA made a decision: all players who have participated in the World Cup are not allowed to participate in the Olympic football match.That said, other professional players can participate.But by 1972, FIFA suspended this decision again, and the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries continued to benefit. In 1972, Poland, Hungary, East Germany and the Soviet Union took the top four places in the Munich Olympic Football Tournament. In 1976, the GDR participated in the Montreal Olympic football match with the same team that participated in the World Cup in 1974, and won the gold medal in one fell swoop; the Polish team participated in the World Cup with the third team and won the silver medal; The 1980 Moscow Olympics was boycotted by a large number of Western countries, and the football medals naturally fell into the hands of Eastern European countries. In 1978, FIFA also stipulated that European and South American countries shall not allow players who have participated in the World Cup (including qualifiers) to participate in the Olympic Games. solve. After the International Tennis Federation and the International Basketball Federation successively agreed that professional players could participate in the Olympic Games, in 1981, Samaranch decided to continue to expand his achievements and sent an invitation to FIFA.However, FIFA, which governs world football, is unwilling to see Olympic football become another World Cup, in other words It does not want many professional stars and famous teams to reduce the charm of the World Cup by participating in the Olympics.Based on the fact that it has created three major age groups worldwide competitions over 17 years old, under 20 years old and the World Cup, the Olympic football game is set as a world competition under the age of 23, so that it has completed the establishment of four age groups starting from 17 years old. Each age group has a full program of World Championships. FIFA President Havelange categorically rejected Samaranch's kind invitation. Samaranch was not discouraged. In the next two years, he sent people to FIFA for negotiations many times, and personally visited Havelange to persuade FIFA to accept the opinion of the International Olympic Committee.Finally Havelange relaxed a little. In 1984, FIFA President Havelange announced that in addition to the regulations that European and South American players who have participated in the World Cup are not allowed to participate in the Olympic Games, there will be no distinction between professional and amateur in the future.The decision gave hope to Olympic football. The 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games saw a marked improvement in the level of football matches, and the number of spectators also began to rise. In July 1988, FIFA made a very embarrassing decision for the International Olympic Committee and Samaranch. In the future, the age limit for players in Olympic football games will be under 23 years old, and it will become one of the four major age groups of FIFA World Championships. of a competition.There is no precedent for Olympic competition as an integral part of its World Series of Individual Events, only in football. Although the International Olympic Committee has the power to govern global sports, it has to respect the opinions of football, the world's leading individual international federation. In September 1989, the IOC made concessions to FIFA.At that time, a representative of the International Olympic Committee once said that with FIFA's tough attitude, kicking football out of the 1992 Olympic Games was not a joke. The 1992 Barcelona Olympics football match was neglected, ticket prices fell again and again, the preliminaries were still empty, and even the key games such as the quarter-finals still had a surplus of tickets.European and Spanish fans who appreciate football games with great taste know well that there are no stars in Olympic football, and games without stars are nothing to watch. Havelange finally couldn't take it anymore, and he said angrily: "If the International Olympic Committee wants to boycott football, then we will consider holding an under-23 World Cup football match. Remove!" Nevertheless, Samaranch still did not give up efforts.So far, he is still seeking the support of Havelange and FIFA, hoping to make the Olympic football match the highest level football match in the world. Each international sports federation also has its own organization, the International Federation of Sports Federations, whose chairman is Thomas Keller, who also serves as the chairman of the International Canoeing Federation. For the work of the International Federation of Individual Sports, Samaranch also strongly supports.Each IOC solidarity fund also has a share of the individual federations.Samaranch established the Winter Sports Committee and the Summer Sports Committee in the International Federation of Sports Federations, and sent his right-hand man to these two committees.Funds allocated by the IOC Solidarity Fund are distributed to individual federations through these two committees. Thomas Keller also has a place in the International Olympic Committee, so he creates conflicts within the International Olympic Committee from time to time, but all of them end in failure.Later Thomas Keller always referred to Samaranch as "Napoleon". After the death of Thomas Keller, Samaranch recommended Jin Yunlong, executive member of the International Olympic Committee and director of the International Olympic Committee's Television Broadcasting Committee, as the chairman of the International Federation of Sports Federations.In this way, the International Olympic Committee basically controls the International Federation of Individual Sports Federations. 经过萨马兰奇的努力，国际奥委会、国际单项体育联合会总会和国家奥委会联合会三权鼎立的局面实际上已不复存在，奥林匹克运动会、世界锦标赛和世界杯赛的世界三大重要比赛也以奥运会项目多、规模大、水平高而成为全球名副其实的体育盛会。以国际奥委会为中心的世界体育大家庭形成了。正如萨马兰奇1992年在一次记者招待会上所形容的那样：“国际奥委会已成为世界体育的舵手。” 当然，在萨马兰奇改革的道路上，也遇到过干扰和反对。国际奥委会内部也不总是风平浪静，尤其是国际奥委会的重要实权人物、总干事贝弗利欧夫人，总是与萨马兰奇针锋相对，在他改革的道路上设置了重重障碍。但作为一个改革家，萨马兰奇没有被困难吓倒，更没有被障碍阻住。“很多人认为我一意孤行地行使权力，过于突出了我的观点，这话不确切。……我和我的同事还要使国际奥委会变得更加强大。” 萨马兰奇矢志不渝地坚持按照自己的理想和变化了的形势对国际奥委会和奥林匹克运动进行了大刀阔斧的改革，最终解决了困扰国际奥委会多年的3个主要问题，即：（一）改变了奥运会参赛者必须是业余运动员的原则；（二）建立了“奥林匹克计划”，为国际奥委会争取到稳定的收入来源；（三）调整了国际奥委会同国家奥委会和国际单项体育联合会的关系，确立了各自的职能。 萨马兰奇担任主席后，国际奥委会领导机构也发生了许多变化。 1894年举行第一届国际体育代表大会时，只有8个国家参加；1988年，国际奥委会的成员已经发展到170多个国家和地区。但是在这近一个世纪的时期里，英语国家的代表曾长期控制着国际奥委会，例如布伦戴奇和基拉宁都属于英语国家，这也反映出当时的世界局势。 随着国际政治形势的发展变化，国际奥委会的权力分配也出现了变化。美国在国际奥委会的地位不断被削弱，苏联的力量逐渐增强。后来发展到在国际奥委会执委里竟没有一名美国人，而且在国际奥委会下属机构里担任要职的美国人也已经寥寥无几，20多个国际单项体育联合会主席中几乎已经没有美国人了。 中小国家的兴起也表现在国际奥委会委员的结构上。萨马兰奇1980年担任国际奥委会主席后，委员的分布也遍及到各大洲，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲一些中小国家。 洛杉矶奥运会前夕，有人指责国际体育组织的构成中又出现了一个新的“拉丁集团”。他们的理由是：国际奥委会主席萨马兰奇是西班牙人，各国奥委会联合会主席马里奥·巴斯克斯·拉尼亚是墨西哥人，国际足联主席阿维兰热是巴西人，国际田联主席内比奥罗是意大利人。而西班牙语、葡萄牙语和意大利语都属于拉丁语系。而且其中萨马兰奇与马里奥·巴斯克斯·拉尼亚组成了自布伦戴奇以来的最强有力的权力核心，他们俩人的母语恰恰又都是西班牙语。 事实上，无论是国际奥委会主席还是委员，都是以个人身份在国际奥委会工作，而不代表他们各自的国家，但他们的国籍有时也会或多或少、自觉不自觉地影响到他们对国际奥委会一些事务的态度。从这个意义上说，一个国家的政治也可能影响到奥林匹克运动的发展。 萨马兰奇曾说：“体育与政治无关说起来是很容易的。但政治无所不在，你无法回避。” 萨马兰奇还对国际奥委会机关刊物《奥运之星》的记者发表谈话说：“体育不涉及政治，这说起来极为容易。不过在现实中，则完全是两回事。我认为，体育将不得不与政治保持非常密切的关系。其原因在于，在某些国家里，就不能没有政治。” 对于政治影响体育的现象，萨马兰奇的态度是：“奥委会的主要方针不是解决问题，而是避免问题。避免问题比解决问题更重要。” 目前国际体育组织领导集团可能是无意中形成的，也可能像某些人说的那样，是萨马兰奇有心安排的。但无论如何，它对保持奥林匹克运动的纯洁性和世界体育运动的发展都是有利的。 西班牙、墨西哥、巴西和意大利有着共同的特点，即都是经济比较发达的国家，人民的生活比较稳定，没有过多地参与国际政治，而且它们又都没有能力在国际上单独担任一个重要角色。因此，国际政局的动荡一般不会对它们产生太大的冲击，由此也就有可能“避免”政治活动对国际体育组织领导人乃至国际体育运动的影响。如果目前国际体育组织领导机构的组成的确是萨马兰奇有意安排的话，那么这种安排还是巧妙而有远见的。 回顾一下奥林匹克运动史，奥运会时时遭到不同程度的抵制或干扰。其中有国际政治形势演变的影响，也有因国际奥委会一些委员把自己国家政府的政治态度塞进了奥林匹克运动，给奥林匹克运动造成了许多不必要的损失的成分。 往事如烟，但政治给奥林匹克运动投下的阴影却无法抹去。 1920年在比利时的安特卫普举行了第7届奥运会。由于两年前第一次世界大战以协约国的胜利而告终，同盟国各战败国被禁止参加该届奥运会。尽管顾拜旦极力主张允许同盟国参加，但他的意见最终被国际奥委会否决。 十月革命刚刚胜利不久的苏联未被邀请参加本届奥运会。 1936年第11届奥运会在德国柏林举行。由于希特勒疯狂扩军备战，妄图称霸世界的罪恶行径激起了世界爱好和平人民的强烈反对，西、英、法、美、捷克、比利时、荷兰、瑞典等国代表同年6月在巴黎召开了“保卫奥林匹克思想代表大会”，号召世界各国人民“抵制希特勒的奥运会，争取在巴塞罗那举办人民的奥运会。” 一个月后，西班牙爆发了国内战争，抵制希特勒奥运会的计划破产。 国际奥委会1954年在纪念奥林匹克运动开展60周年的活动中公开承认，当时在纳粹主义非常猖獗的德国举办奥运会是不适宜的。 1948年，第二次世界大战结束后的第3年，作为同盟国对协约国的报复，战败国德国和日本被禁止参加奥运会。 1956年，受美国的影响，当时的国际奥委会对中国采取敌视态度，中国奥委会宣布同国际奥委会断交，并不参加在澳大利亚墨尔本举行的第16届奥运会。 西班牙奥委会宣布，为抗议苏联出兵匈牙利，西班牙不参加本届奥运会。 印尼1962年举办第4届亚运会时，曾拒绝台湾和以色列参加。当时的国际奥委会主席布伦戴奇勃然大怒，决定对印尼实行报复，宣布不定期禁止印尼参加奥运会。 布伦戴奇的无理决定遭到13个阿拉伯国家的抗议。1964年第18届东京奥运会前夕，国际奥委会被迫宣布取消对印尼的制裁。但国际奥委会仍然禁止1963年参加过印尼新兴力量运动会的运动员参加奥运会。为此，印尼和朝鲜民主主义人民共和国正式宣布抵制东京奥运会。 1968年第19届墨西哥奥运会男子200米短跑发奖仪式上，分获第1名和第3名的美国黑人选手史密斯和卡洛斯悄悄脱下了运动鞋。高奏美国国歌时，他们低着头，脚蹬黑色袜子，突然举起了戴着黑色手套的拳头。顿时全场轰动，主席台上的国际奥委会主席、美国人布伦戴奇更是横眉竖目，温色难掩。两天后，史密斯和卡洛斯被遣送回国。 布伦戴奇当然清楚，这是美国黑人对美国以及国际奥委会个别人对黑人种族歧视的公开抗议。 1962年2月，布伦戴奇领导的国际奥委会决定重新接纳南非进入国际奥运大家庭。这一决定立即受到了非洲、中美洲、东欧一些国家以及苏联的强烈反对。它们声明，如果国际奥委会不改变这一错误决定，他们将抵制奥运会。 同时，美国黑人大学生也向美国奥委会提出了几项要求。其中包括必须禁止实行种族隔离政策的南非参加奥运会，在美国奥运会代表队中增加一名黑人教练，恢复因拒绝到越南打仗的阿里的拳王称号等。黑人学生的行动立即扩展到整个美国社会，形成了一次全国范围的学潮，而且他们的斗争要求已经不仅局限于奥运会了。在这期间，卡洛斯还曾作为代表前往纽约会见了黑人运动领袖马丁·路德·金。马丁·路德·金表示对学潮全力支持，但不久，他即在纽约一家旅馆遭到暗杀。 美国政府的这一行动并没有吓倒黑人学生，反而激起了他们更大的愤怒。他们决心在更大的范围内抗议种族歧视政策。 在黑人学生运动已经不可能被遏制的情况下，美国奥委会接受了黑人学生的请求，国际奥委会召开了一次特别会议，撤消原来恢复南非参加奥运会资格的决定。 但是美国黑人的社会地位并没有因此而改变，马丁·路德·金的冤仇未报。于是史密斯和卡洛斯在奥运会领奖台上举起了愤怒的拳头。 此外，非洲国家在奥林匹克运动中争取民族平等的斗争也从未停止过。 1972年慕尼黑奥运会前，国际奥委会邀请了实行种族歧视的罗得西亚。20多个非洲国家宣布将抵制第20届奥运会。国际奥委会被迫撤回了对罗得西亚的邀请。 但是，国际奥委会仍然坚持允许以色列选手参加奥运会。许多阿拉伯国家宣布采取抵制行动，国际奥委会听之任之，结果在奥运会期间发生了“黑九月”流血事件。 在1976年蒙特利尔奥运会上，非洲20多个国家因新西兰曾派橄榄球队去南非比赛而抗议新西兰参加奥运会，先后退出了比赛，使本届奥运会的规模比慕尼黑奥运会的规模大大缩小。 1980年，在美国总统卡特的建议下，62个国家抵制莫斯科奥运会，抗议苏联出兵侵略阿富汗。 1984年，苏联又带领东欧一些国家抵制洛杉矶奥运会。 Forget the past.这些人为造成的外界因素，对于运动员个人来说，也许就毁了他的体育生命；对于一个国家的体育事业来说，也许会贻误她几年甚至几十年的时间。 特别值得提出的是，萨马兰奇在改革国际奥委会组织机构时，没有忘记给占世界人口一半的妇女留下发言权。 古代奥林匹克竞技会不仅没有女选手参赛，而且由于竞技者皆赤身裸体，妇女是绝对禁止人场观看的，敢于违犯这一戒律的妇女将会因此而丢掉性命。 现代奥林匹克运动会自第二届开始便有了女选手参加，但是国际奥委会却一直是男子一统天下的局面。然而这个局面在萨马兰奇担任国际奥委会主席以后也被打破了。 萨马兰奇对妇女一直是很尊重的。他认为，奥林匹克精神的一个重要原则就是公平竞争。国际奥委会，不应当有种族的隔阂，不应当受政治观点的影响，更不应该有性别的歧视。无论男人女人，都应该按照自己的能力，在领导层占有相应的地位，任何不尊重妇女的表现都应该得以纠正。 “如果说国际奥委会做了一件我为之骄傲的事情，那就是我们在国际奥委会里增添了女委员。然而这还不够。妇女的重要地位不能只表现在体育方面，而且应当表现在各个领域。我们将更加坚定地沿着这条道路走下去。”萨马兰奇在国际奥委会一次执委会议上情真意切地说。 萨马兰奇把国际奥委会的大门向妇女敞开。1980年到1990年，共有7位妇女成为国际奥委会委员。她们是：委内瑞拉人弗洛尔·伊萨瓦·英塞卡，美国人阿妮塔·德弗兰茨，玛丽·艾莉森·格伦—黑格，芬兰人皮尔乔·海格曼，加拿大人卡罗尔一安妮·莱瑟伦，英国安娜公主和列支敦士登人诺拉。 萨马兰奇还积极倡议创立运动家委员会，通过它来听取各国运动员对国际奥委会的要求和愿望。在过去，对奥运会的任何规定和条例都完全由国际奥委会讨论决定，很少征求运动员的意见，运动家委员会的诞生，加强了国际奥委会同各国运动员之间的联系。在他的主张下，还对奥林匹克比赛项目做了一些调整，把两项非常重要的运动项目——乒乓球和网球——列入了汉城奥运会的正式比赛项目。同时人们在此届奥运会上还首次看到艺术体操、花样游泳和超重量级别拳击的表演项目。 对于大众体育运动，萨马兰奇更是积极支持，因为他自己每天都要参加体育锻炼，年事虽高却从未懈怠。在他的组织下，1983年，国际奥委会成立了一个专门的工作组，由在群众体育方面具有悠久传统的捷克斯洛伐克的体育部长基姆尔担任组长。该工作组研究制定了国际奥委会大众体育委员会的组织机构、工作计划和职能范围。 1985年，国际奥委会大众体育委员会正式成立。该委员会的宗旨，就是顾拜旦所追求的奥林匹克的最终目标：“扩大活动范围，探索新的发展前景和新的平衡，更全面地满足整体和每一个人的合理愿望”。 1986年，国际奥委会大众体育委员会对一系列群众性体育竞赛活动作出了积极响应。这些活动包括：中国农民篮球联赛（1000支球队参加）、丹麦群众性长跑比赛（10000人参加）、荷兰青年奥林匹克节（16000人参加）、匈牙利五项比赛（82万人参加）、联邦德国中小学生体育比赛（1万人参加）等等。通过这个委员会，国际奥委会向各国奥委会提供了有关资料。 1986年，国际奥委会大众体育委员会组织召开了第一届“大众体育”国际代表大会，大会提出了“每个人都有参加体育运动的权利”的口号。1988年在捷克斯洛伐克召开了第二届“大众体育”国际代表大会。萨马兰奇出席了这次大会并发言。他在讲话中指出：“大众体育”运动在国际上的地位已得到巩固，国际奥委会绝不会对这一运动袖手旁观”。 正是因为有了萨马兰奇这样锐意改革的舵手，国际奥委会才得以由弱到强，成为世界体育事业的旗舰；奥林匹克运动才得以迅速走出70年代衰败的阴影，步入健康发展的光明大道。但萨马兰奇没有满足现有的成绩，他还要沿着自己选择的改革道路坚定不移地走下去。