Chapter 25 Section 1 The Last Chance the World Leaves to China
Emperor Qianlong liked Western toys since he was a child.
This interest obviously has to do with the father.Yongzheng is well-known throughout history as a workaholic, but in his spare time he was also quite a modern player, especially fond of Western gadgets.There are still several portraits of him in suits and wigs in the Palace Museum, as well as a large number of Western clocks, telescopes and even microscopes that he played with.
Qianlong was born in the blue, and he also took the lead in the entertainment industry.Those Western clocks that can jump out of a bird or out of a villain to tell the time have always surprised him from childhood to adulthood.In December of the 22nd year of Qianlong (1757), the emperor ordered Li Shiyao, governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, and Li Yongbiao, admiral of Guangdong Customs, to pay more tribute to several gold-plated ocean view pavilions. It is rare for the emperor to ask for tribute from his ministers so directly. .It can be seen that the emperor really "likes it tightly".
Don't think that the rulers of the Qing Dynasty had no contact with the outside world under the closed door.In fact, things that are popular in Paris or London are often introduced to Beijing with merchant ships or missionaries soon.The top watchmakers in Europe have been pondering the preferences of the Chinese emperors during the Kangxi and Qianlong eras.There are also Europeans who traveled thousands of miles, transported machinery and equipment from Europe, and opened a watch factory in Guangzhou to produce luxury goods for emperors and nobles.Some Chinese craftsmen have also given full play to the unique imitation genius of the Chinese people, imitating Western products in large quantities, and they are lifelike.However, Qianlong could see at a glance that these joint ventures and counterfeit products were not authentic, and emphasized that the products used in the palace must be imported with original packaging: "I have never made bamboo leaf green and foreign lacquer utensils, and they are not foreign. For example, imported clocks, foreign lacquer utensils, gold and silver satin, Felt rugs and other items must be made abroad." ("Emperor Qianlong and Macartney")
In addition to clocks, the emperor was also fascinated by Western automatic toys, especially "robots" and "robot animals".Xi Chengyuan, a Western missionary in the palace, developed a "self-propelled lion", which is no different in size from a real lion. The clockwork is hidden in the lion's belly and can walk a hundred steps.The emperor came to watch in person, and was very happy to see the "propelled lion" striding towards him. ("The Biography of Emperor Qianlong")
In addition, there are many Western artifacts that aroused the emperor's interest.The emperor was very curious about Western musical instruments.He ordered the missionaries Wei Jijin and Lu Zhongxian to teach the little eunuch to learn "big violin" (presumably cello) and "little violin" (violin), and organized a group in the palace including big and small violins, pianos, oboes, clarinets, A western orchestra including guitars, so that the female relatives living in the deep palace can also appreciate the exotic customs.
In 1792, the autumn of the fifty-seventh year of Qianlong, the emperor received an urgent memorial from the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi.The memorial said that a strange country named "Engjili" sent people to Guangzhou to deliver a letter, saying that it planned to come to pay tribute to the Celestial Dynasty.
At the end of the memorial is also attached the "Report" translated into Chinese by the British "Business Manager" "Bailing".
This report has "Chinese characteristics" and the content is as follows:
Bai Ling, the chief executive of the British Kingdom, who manages the trade affairs, would like to present to the Lord Tianchao, and respectfully welcome Jun'an.The king of my own country owns three places in Yalandi, France, and Ailun, and sent ships to Guangzhou for trade.Hearing that the great emperor of the Celestial Dynasty had a long life in his 80s, and no one from our country had ever sent people to Beijing to pay respects to his longevity, my king was very disturbed.My king said: "I would like to ask the great emperor of the heavenly court to be kind to you. Anyone from my own country will come to Guangzhou and trade with the people of the heavenly court. They will all be good to each other. I hope that the bigger the life, the better the wages." The present king Order the official of the country to assist the minister of the country, Magar, and send it to Tianjin.If the great emperor of the Celestial Dynasty is invited to see this person, my king will be very happy and promise that the people of England and the people of the Celestial Dynasty will always be on good terms.This person sailed to Tianjin today, carrying valuables as a tribute, including large items, fearing that the road would be difficult, and traveling by water to Beijing without damage, and hoped to arrive in Beijing as soon as possible.There are also escort boats to escort them.I always ask my lord to play the favor of the emperor on behalf of our king first, and allow this ship to berth in Tianjin or the nearest place.I can only pray to the heavens and the earth to bless the Lord of the Heavenly Dynasty with a long life. ("Anecdotes Series")
The tone of this letter sent from an unknown country in the horizon is really extremely "submissive".You see, the emperor's 80th birthday last year, they knew that the letter was late and missed, and their king was "very disturbed", so they rushed to celebrate the emperor's birthday this year, if the emperor would show his face , then their king will be "very happy" and "kowtow to the heaven and earth to bless the Lord of the Celestial Dynasty with a long life", he really knows the etiquette.The emperor was very satisfied after reading it.
However, the question is, what kind of country is the country of England?in which direction?How far and how big?The mention of "France" in the report has something to do with France mentioned by the missionaries?
The emperor ordered people to move here the "Records of the Unification of the Qing Dynasty", which was revised by all polymaths from home and abroad eight years ago.This book has recorded all the countries in the world known to the Chinese.However, after looking through it from beginning to end, although I found what missionaries often said about France and Italy, I couldn't find the shadow of English.
So the emperor found missionaries in the palace and asked what was going on in England.The missionaries really knew about it, and told him, "This country is the Red-haired country, in the north of the Western Ocean, and in the northwest of the Celestial Dynasty."In the same direction as France and Italy, it is also good at manufacturing equipment.
The emperor was very happy.This not only means that he will receive a large number of precious Western gadgets, but also means that a new name will be added to the list of vassal states of the Qing Dynasty.
In the past dynasties, China has attached great importance to the number of vassal states.
The world imagined by the Chinese is that China is at the center of the world and is a country of civilization.The surrounding countries surrounded China, all sunk in barbarism and ignorance.Therefore, China is willing to be kind to people far away, "spread sound teachings" to the surroundings, and save them from the unfortunate darkness with the light of its own civilization.Most of the barbarians who know things around are "feeling for Hua" and eagerly want to come to the Middle Kingdom to visit and study and learn advanced culture.
Naturally, they can’t come empty-handed. They bring the best local products of their country and respectfully present them to the Chinese emperor.This marked their tribute to advanced civilization and their submission to the Chinese Empire.These countries are called tributary countries, also known as vassal states.
"All nations come to court" and "Sibari guest service" have always been the symbols of the success of the Central Empire's rule.The more vassal states the Chinese Empire has, the better the empire is governed.The central dynasty granted legal status to the surrounding small countries through canonization.And the legitimacy of the central dynasty itself needs to be proved by the support of small countries to a certain extent.The dynasties of all dynasties were keen to display their glory and greatness in order to attract the surrounding countries to pay tribute.
The number of vassal states of the Qing Dynasty is naturally quite large.Because the relationship between China and its vassal states is fundamentally ceremonial, China is the monarch, and foreign countries are ministers, so the Qing Dynasty's diplomacy was divided into separate management by the Ministry of Rites and the Ministry of Li Fan.The southeast and the sea, such as Korea, Ryukyu, Vietnam, Nanzhang (Laos), Siam (Thailand), Sulu, Myanmar, as well as the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the Pope's Hall (Italy) in the West, belong to the The Ministry of Rites manages.However, those under the jurisdiction of the Li Fanyuan are mainly the land territories and countries in the northwest, such as Kazakhstan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and the "subject country Russia" in the wishful thinking of the Chinese.
Generally speaking, adding a new name to the list of tributary countries is not an easy task.In addition to doing everything possible to send envoys to recruit, it is necessary to use force to subdue.The number of vassal states of the Qing Dynasty increased the fastest during the Qianlong period, mainly because the Qing Dynasty defeated Junggar in the 22nd year of Qianlong (1757). Han, Namgan four cities, Tashhan, Badak Mountain, Boror, Aiwuhan, Qiqiyusi, and Urgenqi tribes" all "belong to the same inland" or "list my vassal uniform". "It is a grand event that has never been seen in a land that has not been connected to China since ancient times, and it is my servant of the Qing Dynasty. ("Drafts of Qing History")
But now, neither the Qing Empire sent troops nor sent envoys, and the never-known English country tens of thousands of miles away in the Atlantic Ocean "has been admiring the teachings from afar, and is enamored with Hua" and has come to pay tribute on its own initiative.Isn't this a powerful testament to the cultural influence of the Chinese Empire?Isn't this the best commentary on the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty?Isn't this a happy event for the emperor in his later years?
What's more, this new "servant" will contribute many rare treasures to the emperor.Didn't the report make it very clear: "There are valuables for tribute, and there are large items inside. I am afraid that the road will be difficult. I will go to Beijing by water without damage. I hope to arrive in Beijing as soon as possible."
According to the usual practice, all foreign tribute envoys arriving by sea will go ashore from Guangzhou.The emperor replied to the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, and specially approved the English to make an exception to land in Tianjin: "Reading his love words is very respectful and sincere, and you should grant his request, so as to fulfill the sincerity of his voyage." ("Records of Emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty")
In fact, the British were not strangers to the Chinese Empire.They have been coming to the seaside of China for hundreds of years.For a long time, they have been one of the most important foreign trade partners of the Qing Dynasty.
Since ancient times, the British have always been attracted by the mysterious big country of the East.As early as 1497, the British Capote attempted to open a route to China, but unfortunately he failed.It was not until 1635, when the British merchant ship "London" arrived in Macau, that it marked the beginning of Sino-British exchanges.
Since then, trade links have been established between China and Britain.However, the officials of the Ming Dynasty at that time did not know where these foreigners came from. Seeing that they also had red hair and blue eyes, they thought they were Dutch, so they were also called "red hair fans".In the eyes of the Chinese, the Netherlands was the strongest country on the sea at that time.
In fact, the general situation of the world has long since changed. Since the end of the 16th century, Britain has successively defeated Spain and the Netherlands and realized the rise of the sea.In Sino-foreign trade, the British also came from behind and soon replaced the Netherlands and Spain as the main force in Sino-foreign trade.The popularity of Chinese tea all over the world is mainly due to the credit of British businessmen.
Although tea trees were cultivated in China as early as the 2nd century BC, they were not known to Westerners until the mid-16th century. In 1606, the Dutch first exported tea to Europe.However, in the following 100 years, Europeans did not show much interest in this new drink.After the rise of Sino-British trade, tea has gradually become the fashion in European living rooms after the vigorous promotion of British businessmen, and has fascinated more and more people.From 1685 to 1759, over 70 years, the amount of tea purchased by Britain from China increased from more than 80,000 pounds to 2.69 million pounds, an increase of more than 30 times.Tea has also become China's largest export to Europe, accounting for more than half of European purchases from China.The British thus became the absolute main force in trade with China. In 1764, the total value of goods shipped from Europe to China was 1.91 million taels of silver, of which the British shipped 1.21 million taels, accounting for 63.3%; while the total value of China’s exports to Europe was 3.64 million taels of silver, the British bought 1.7 million taels, accounting for 46.7%.By the end of the 18th century, the import value of Britain's trade with China accounted for about 90% of the total value of Western countries, and the export value accounted for more than 70%.Britain has long been China's largest foreign trade exporter and also the largest foreign trade importer. ("Retreat and Opening up, Research on Foreign Relations in Late Feudal China")
But the emperor of China and the Chinese government knew nothing about it.The British are still the same as the late Ming Dynasty, and the Dutch have always been called "Hong Mao Fan".Even the Chinese businessmen who deal directly with them are very vague about the relationship between these two kinds of "red-haired".So much so that the "Unified Records of the Qing Dynasty", which was just revised a few years ago, recorded Spain, France, Italy and other countries, but they did not have this most important foreign trade partner.
Why did the emperor of China shut his eyes and listen like this?
In fact, it is to blame Emperor Qianlong's bad memory in his later years.He should have had an impression of this English country.
That was the twenty-fourth year of Qianlong (1759).In the summer of that year, a western three-masted ship appeared on the sea outside Dagukou, Tianjin.A British businessman named "Hong Renhui" in Chinese, who claimed to be "the fourth-rank official of England", said that he had something important to go to Beijing to sue the imperial court.
The arrival of the "Fourth Official of England" alarmed the prefect of Tianjin.The curious prefect Lingyu came to Hong Renhui's boat and paid a visit to the blond foreigner.Hong Renhui told him in fluent Chinese that they originally traded with China in Guangzhou, but they suffered a lot of bullying during the trade process, so they wanted to ask the Chinese emperor for comment.
This is a miracle that has never happened in China's history.It stands to reason that Lingyu should not have allowed this unruly barbarian to enter Tianjin.But with a quick mind, he has heard that foreign businessmen are very rich, so he thinks this is an excellent opportunity to make a fortune.So he expressed to Hong Renhui that after hearing Hong's story, he was very sympathetic.He will report this matter to his superiors, but he will risk being dismissed if he “appeals” on behalf of a foreigner.
Therefore, Ling Yu quietly stretched out 5 fingers.Without the benefit of 5000 taels of silver, he wouldn't dare to do such a thing.
In fact, the foreigner Hong Renhui is just an ordinary English translator, not a fourth-rank English official at all.His real name is James Flint (James Flint), and he has been a translator for the British East India Company since the 12th year of Qianlong (1747).The reason why he called himself a fourth-rank official was because he knew very well that it was impossible for an ordinary British businessman or translator to meet a Chinese official.Although he is very familiar with the corruption of Chinese officials, Hong still feels that 5,000 taels is too much.He bargained with Lingyu, and finally agreed on a price of 2,500 Spanish silver dollars, 2,000 first, and 500 later.
After accepting the heavy silver coins, on the afternoon of the 19th, Lingyu allowed Hong's ship to sail to Tianjin by water, and arranged for Hong Renhui to live in a temple for 7 days.During these seven days, Hong Renhui handed over the papers layer by layer, and was sent from Tianjin to the Forbidden City, directly to Emperor Qianlong's court case.
In Hong Renhui's pleadings, he described to the emperor many difficulties they had encountered in the trade with China over the past few decades.He said that for decades, the thirteen-line system has plagued them like an uncomfortable shackle.He said that their trade is therefore seriously unbalanced, and it is difficult to know directly what the Chinese people really need.He asked the Qing Empire to open some trade ports outside of Guangzhou.He also made the following specific requests:
We require that all agents and compradors employed by us do not have to pay a salute to or have the approval of customs officials.
We sue the officers of the three checkpoints between our shop and the ship, who have extorted many of the merchant ships about to sail, and especially the officials of the last checkpoint, who last year withheld the Houghton's license to pilot water.
We demand that the disgraceful notices calling us criminals be removed, which have lately been posted all over the provincial capital and its suburbs, causing us to be constantly insulted on the road.The government has the responsibility not only to protect us, but also to protect the merchants, messengers, compradors and servants who come and go with us.
We accuse an official of the customs house near our shop for the brutal conduct.About two months ago, on the pretext that we hadn't bowed to him, he forbade us to sit in the shade on his boat.We demand that he be ordered to our residence to apologize, or be fired. (Mass "The Chronicle of the East India Company's Trade with China")
How much grievance did they encounter that made the British embolden to knock on the gate of the Forbidden City?
It turned out that although the British had traded with China for many years, the British had only been to one city in China, and that was Guangzhou.In Guangzhou, they have only been to one place, and that is the "thirteen lines".
More than 200 years ago, those foreign businessmen who traveled thousands of miles to China, although they were also rich, were in an unimaginably miserable situation after arriving in China:
They are only allowed to enter China every summer.After arriving in Guangzhou, they were not allowed to live in the city of Guangzhou, but were only allowed to live in the "Thirteen Streets", and they were not allowed to go out if they had nothing to do.
In addition, they are not allowed to bring their wives to China, nor are they allowed to find Chinese women, so they can only suffer.They are not allowed to associate with ordinary Chinese.Once the Chinese chat with them, they will be regarded as "traitors".
In particular, the Chinese government has never bothered to deal directly with them.Imperial China never had a foreign ministry, nor did it have a government agency to manage foreign trade.All foreign trade affairs of the Qing Dynasty were handled by the private organization "Thirteen Banks".
The so-called "Thirteen Banks" are thirteen Chinese businessmen designated by the Chinese government to be responsible for doing business with foreigners.After foreign merchants arrive in China, all goods can only be sold to Shisanhang, no matter how much lower the price they give than others.All purchases must go through them, no matter how they increase the price and reduce the quality.All actions of foreign businessmen in China must be monitored and restrained by the Thirteen Banks, and they must not take a random step or say a word.If they encounter any difficulties in China or are dissatisfied with China's foreign trade policies, they are not allowed to contact the Chinese local government directly. Don't ask, don't pay attention.
Therefore, foreign businessmen who came to China in the traditional era were not only not VIPs, but prisoners.The Chinese believe that merchants are the end of the four peoples, and the barbarians are the end of mankind, and dealing with them loses the dignity of the heavenly kingdom.
Another reason is China's awareness of "prevention" since ancient times.Although they are happy to attract foreigners to pay tribute, there is another side to the Chinese concept of "Hua Yi", which is "strict defense against Hua Yi".What the Chinese Empire needs is mainly a sense of self-moral superiority and spiritual obedience from foreigners, rather than benefits from foreign trade.China's autocratic system has cleanliness, and "communicating with foreign countries" has been a common accusation that Chinese politicians have imposed on opponents since ancient times.China is already big enough. If it is not necessary to consolidate national defense, there is often no expansionist impulse.They like to live behind closed doors. Except for the tribute trip, they hope to keep the scale of foreign trade to a minimum, and set up many obstacles for foreign businessmen, so as not to add any trouble to their own iron.
Not only do they not want foreigners to bring trouble to the empire, even those Chinese who are engaged in overseas trade are loathed by the rulers.In the fifth year after Emperor Qianlong came to the throne, the "Red Creek Incident" occurred in which the Dutch massacred overseas Chinese in Batavia (now Jakarta, Indonesia). Dutch soldiers and thugs began to massacre and loot overseas Chinese in Batavia, and set fire to their residences. , The massacre lasted for more than half a month, and the blood of more than 10,000 innocent overseas Chinese stained the streams of Bacheng, so people called this tragic event the "Battle of Red Stream".
The following year, the governor of Fujian reported the matter to the court.The emperor announced: "Those who violate the order and refuse to be recalled in the mainland, who are willing to live for a long time, and who should be punished in the heavenly dynasty, are killed in trouble abroad, and they have to pay for themselves." That is to say, these overseas Chinese were originally restless people in the country. , illegally going abroad, being massacred is asking for bad luck.
With this level of concept and knowledge, the high-level officials of the Qing Dynasty were indifferent to their own level of foreign trade development, the number of foreign trade countries, and changes in foreign trade commodities, so they knew nothing about it.
The grievances and insults of foreign businessmen living in China are obvious.The Frenchman Laperouse stayed briefly in Guangdong in 1787, and later he wrote: "Every cup of tea that people drink in Europe is permeated with the humiliation suffered by the merchants who bought tea in Guangdong..." Macartney also expressed Same frustration: "Our agents in Guangdong live in a subservient state that doesn't match this so-called civilized country."
But that's not the main problem.Although the treatment they receive is so harsh, foreigners still enjoy their trip to China.The reason is simple, profit.To give a simple example, it costs more than 2 shillings to import a pound of tea from China, but it can be sold for more than 14 shillings in the British market.For the sake of profit, foreigners can confine themselves in the thirteen lines, endure loneliness, and stay at home; they can suppress their sexual desires and become ascetics.They can just close their eyes and endure all these regulations about daily life in the Kingdom of Heaven.
However, there is something more difficult for them to bear than these:
Because all foreign trade was monopolized by the Guangzhou Thirteen Banks, the Thirteen Banks became a half-official, half-business, nondescript institution.They cover the sky with one hand and set prices arbitrarily.They act as middlemen between foreigners and the Chinese government. They are servile and submissive in front of Chinese officials, but they show off their power and glory to foreigners.Foreign businessmen living in Guangzhou must accept their supervision and management in every move they make.Foreigners who don't understand the reason respectfully call them "officials".Customs officials demand a large amount of bribes from the Thirteen Banks every year, and all of these are passed on to foreign businessmen.This is one of the reasons why Hong Renhui and others are holding their breath.
What makes them even more painful is the extortion and oppression of Chinese officials.
The Chinese government disdains having relations with foreign businessmen, which is determined by the system.However, Chinese officials are invariably very interested in the silver brought by foreign businessmen.Guangzhou Customs is a well-known fat position. Due to the lack of a restrictive mechanism, they have extremely broad rights and unrestrained greed.In the eyes of Chinese officials, foreign businessmen who are full of money and unable to connect with normal Chinese society are fat sheep waiting to be slaughtered. No matter how hard they are slaughtered, foreigners will not be able to make a sound.The corruption of Guangzhou Customs is almost an open secret throughout the country.Historically, the tariff level of Chinese customs has not been high, but the various "extra-planned taxes" have made it difficult for foreign businessmen to bear.In the process of trade, Chinese officials formulate all kinds of "rule regulations" at will, which far exceed the "regular taxes".The overt and hidden costs add up, sometimes as high as 20% of the imported goods.
According to Yu Bashi's "Guangdong Customs Correction and Return to the Public Regulations", during the Yongzheng period, foreign ships that went to Guangzhou for business, each ship sent as many as 68 kinds of bad regulations to the Guangdong Customs Yamen, totaling 1950 taels of silver.
On the fourth day of September in the twenty-fourth year of Qianlong (1759), Xinzhu, who was ordered to investigate Guangzhou Customs, listed to the emperor in his memorial all kinds of "rule rules" that Guangdong Customs collected from foreign merchants.
After a foreign ship arrives in China, if it wants to go ashore, it must pay the following gifts to officials at all levels:
Measure the foreign ship to pay thirty-two taels of silver for hiring the ship;
Six hundred taels of official gift silver (France plus one hundred taels, Surah minus one hundred taels);
One hundred taels of silver for general affairs;
The steward's family measured 48 taels of silver for the opening of the cabin, and 4 taels of small packets;
The treasury provides one hundred and twenty taels of gift silver, ten taels of stickers, and four taels of small packets;
One hundred and twelve taels of gift silver in the manuscript room, four taels of palm-pressed stickers, and two taels and eight coins in small packets (eight coins in palm-pressed small packets);
For a single room, there are twenty-four taels of gift silver, two taels for stickers, and one tael for small packets;
Twenty-four taels of gift silver and one tael in a small bag;
The general inspection hall measures six coins for the silver of the stairs, and another one or two for the silver;
The cash register at the East Paotaikou is two twenty-eight cents and eight cents, and the small bag is seven cents and two cents;
The cash register at the West Paotaikou is two taels and eight cents and eight cents, and the small bag is seven cents and two cents;
The cash register at Huangpukou is five taels, and the small bag is seven cents and two cents;
The cash register at Humenkou is five taels, and the small package is one tael, three cents and two cents;
The family who escorted the boat had eight taels of silver;
The leader of the fourth squad has eight, two, three, two cents of silver;
The treasury receives one tael of silver according to banknotes;
The counting room receives two cents for every two banknotes.
To purchase goods in China and want to leave the port, you have to pay:
Forty-eight taels of customs gift silver and four taels of small packets will be released by the steward's family in the acceptance cabin;
The treasury receives one hundred and twenty taels of gift silver, twenty-four taels of stickers, and four taels of small packets;
The manuscript room received one hundred and twelve liang of gift silver, twenty-four small liang of stickers, and two liang of small packets;
The manuscript room accepts one tael of silver for the license, and two coins for the small bag;
The delivery room receives forty taels of silver as a gift, and one tael, four cents and four cents for a small package;
Single room accepts twenty-four liang of gift silver, eight liang of stickers, and one liang of small packet;
The boat house accepts twenty-four taels of silver, eight taels of stickers, and one tael of small packets;
The box office receives twenty-four taels of gift silver, six taels for stickers, and one tael for small packets;
The counting house receives one tael of silver as a gift, and five coins in a small bag;
The Cambodian house received sixteen taels of silver as gifts, posted one tael and five cents, and small packets of seven cents and two cents;
The signing officer received four taels of silver as a gift and two taels of money in a small bag;
The family escorting the boat received eight taels of cash;
The sailors of the general tour hall will receive one tael of cash;
The cash register at Humenkou is five taels, and the small package is one tael, three cents and two cents;
The cash register at the East Paotaikou is two twenty-eight cents and eight cents, and the small bag is seven cents and two cents;
The cash register at the West Paotaikou is two taels and eight cents and eight cents, and the small bag is seven cents and two cents;
The cash register at Huangpukou is five taels, and the small package is seven cents and two cents. ("Xinzhu and others play the rules, ceremonies, names and colors of each pass, please delete and modify them and include them in the inner fold of the rules", see "Historical Materials Xunkan")
This list is made by Xinzhu after a simple investigation, but the actual collection is far more than these.
The reason why Guangzhou Customs can so blatantly blackmail foreign businessmen is very simple. First, they have monopoly power, and foreign businessmen must trade through Guangzhou.Second, foreign businessmen have no right to appeal.The Chinese government stipulates that foreign businessmen are not allowed to directly have relations with the Chinese government, and can only transfer through the thirteen banks, which actually cancels the right of foreigners to report problems.
For decades, Britain has been trying to break through the control of the Thirteen Banks.
In fact, in the past two years, the British, who have always dared to take risks, tried to conduct trade in other parts of China.
During the Kangxi period, the Qing Dynasty ended the sea ban and opened up foreign trade. Four foreign trade ports were established in Huangpu, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fujian, Ningbo, Zhejiang, and Yuntaishan, Jiangsu.However, foreigners still only trade in Guangzhou according to the practice in the late Ming Dynasty.Ports such as Ningbo are one of the open ports, and there are very few records of foreign merchant ships landing. Until the 20th year of Qianlong (1755), the British East India Company could not stand the various restrictions and deductions from Guangzhou Customs and the Thirteen Banks. Go north to Ningbo to purchase tea and silk directly.
Ningbo officials and businessmen who hadn't seen foreigners for many years were very enthusiastic about Hong Renhui and others, and the procurement went smoothly. "Captain Hong Renhui and his sailors arrived in Ningbo and were warmly welcomed. When they returned home, Captain Hong Renhui brought back a full cabin of Chinese goods." The tea purchased in Ningbo is much cheaper than that in Guangzhou, and the British tea on board Goods are also very popular in Ningbo.After this successful start, British businessmen came to Ningbo more and more frequently.
However, two years later, the situation changed suddenly. "In 1757 (the 22nd year of Qianlong), when he (Hong Renhui) arrived in Ningbo again, the Chinese first asked him to wait, then confiscated half of his cargo, and seized all the goods on board without any explanation. Artillery.” (Perefit, “Empires at Stall—The Collision of Two Worlds”)
It turned out that the frequent arrival of British ships made the magistrate very disturbed.They reported to the emperor.
Emperor Qianlong immediately became vigilant.
The secret of Emperor Qianlong's rule of the world is to tighten the reins and strengthen control.In his eyes, any folk spontaneity and initiative are dangerous.Every member of the entire society must be drawn into the net of the regime.The Qing Dynasty, which lasted for thousands of years and generations, is as solid as gold, and it is the fundamental starting point for him to consider all issues.Although the reopening of ports such as Ningbo will boost Zhejiang's economy, it will add unnecessary trouble to the management of the empire.Opening one more treaty port will give the common people one more window to foreign countries.So after weighing the matter, the emperor issued an edict to the local officials:
Foreign ships have always been imported from Macao and other places in Guangdong, and very few of them go to Ningbo in Zhejiang... There is another market here, and those who stay in the country for a long time will benefit many.An important seaside location is by no means a way to guard against inevitability... Covering local tooth dealers and passers-by, because barbarian merchants have to profit from it, they often have selfish actions.There is no end to this generation's pursuit of profit due to fate; even patrolling military servicemen are also willing to barbarian boats to import fertilizers and make profits.At this time, it is not normal for a villain to pursue profit, but if you don't stop it, I'm afraid it will cause trouble, especially at that time. ("Records of Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty")
The emperor issued a decree, stipulating that foreign trade can only be carried out in Guangzhou.
The British, who have just tasted the sweetness from direct trade, don't want to look back. For the British, this hard-won breakthrough is really important to them.
In 1733, two years before Qianlong ascended the throne, the British invented the flying shuttle, which opened the prelude to the Industrial Revolution. In 1764, the 29th year of Qianlong's reign, the British invented a new type of spinning wheel, and the textile industry sprang up, leading the entire industry into a new era.The extensive use of machines prompted James Watt, a technician at the University of Glasgow, to start improving Newcomen's steam engine, freeing mankind from the long-standing dependence on animal power, wind power and water power for the first time in history.In this year, Qianlong conducted his third southern tour.
The Industrial Revolution has made Britain stronger rapidly. The British need commodities from all over the world, and more importantly, they need to sell a large number of products they manufacture to the world.From 1698 to 1775, Britain's imports and exports of goods both increased by between 500% and 600%.Because of the general prosperity of the people, the British have never needed a large amount of Chinese tea as they do now.And the British have never been so eager to sell their own textiles, steel products and other industrial products to China as they are now. ("Global History")
Due to the restrictions of the Thirteen Banks, the Sino-British trade has been seriously unbalanced for many years.Tea has increasingly become an essential item on European tables, but the problem is that the essence of trade is exchange.What to exchange for Chinese tea?This is a problem that makes the British extremely headache.Products produced in the UK are rarely sold in China through the Thirteen Banks.From 1786 to 1829, the British shipped cotton textiles to Guangzhou eight times, but the sales were not good. In 1821, the British businessman brought 4,509 pieces of British tweed, 416 pieces of shearling and velvet, and sold them at auction in the Guangzhou market, resulting in a loss of 60%. ("New Review of Lin Zexu's "Anti-Smoking Campaign")
Britain can provide some luxuries for the Chinese royal family, but the market demand is small after all.Except for selling a little Indian cotton when the cotton harvest in Jiangsu and Zhejiang was poor, the British could not find anything to sell to China.Therefore, the British can only buy Chinese tea with cash.At that time, only 10% of the British merchant ships that came to Guangdong were cargo, and more than 90% were cash.Therefore, in the Sino-British trade, the UK has been running an absolute deficit year after year.Since the mid-18th century, silver has always accounted for 90% of the value of the British East India Company's exports to China.They simply cannot bear such a huge trade deficit.They eagerly want to bypass the thirteen lines, personally go deep into the Chinese market, and understand what the Chinese people really need.They do not believe that "Made in Britain", which is popular all over the world, will not be sold in China.
Therefore, after the attempt to trade in Ningbo was blocked, the British, who were not so tame by nature, couldn't help it.They chose to send Hong Renhui to complain about their "grievances" to the Chinese emperor, and directly made the desperate request of multi-port trade.They believed that the Emperor of China was reasonable, but he had been deceived by the Guangzhou Customs for many years and did not understand the various facts of Sino-foreign trade.If they find a channel to report the real situation to the emperor, and the emperor sends someone to investigate, everything will be revealed, because the corruption of Guangzhou Customs is almost an open secret.The wise Chinese emperor may therefore completely reform this foreign trade system, which is very unreasonable from any point of view.
After waiting in Tianjin for 7 days, until 6:00 pm on July 28, Hong Renhui finally waited for an official.He told Hong Renhui that Emperor Qianlong had read his pleadings.And asked him to return to Guangzhou and wait for the commissioner sent by the emperor to hear the matter in Guangzhou.
The British goal seems to have been achieved.After reading this paper, Qianlong was furious.In dealing with foreigners, politics always trumps economics, and the decency of the Heavenly Kingdom comes first.Nowadays, the customs officials are so corrupt that they force foreigners to go straight to Gyeonggi along the coast, making a fuss to sue for impeachment. This has never happened in Chinese history.
The emperor instructed that foreign-related incidents must be taken very seriously. "Things involving foreign barbarians and the state system must be thoroughly investigated in order to honor the constitution of the Celestial Dynasty."
In order to thoroughly investigate the matter, the emperor ordered Fujian General Xinzhu and Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi Li Shiyao to hear the case.
Hong Renhui was secretly proud of himself.The problems that have accumulated for decades in the Sino-British trade have finally had the opportunity to be resolved.He was going to be a hero in British foreign trade.
Li Shiyao, governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, has always been known as a "capable member" and "capable".His greatest feature is his ability to understand the meaning behind every word in the emperor's will.
The facts of this case are clear, and there is no need for a complicated investigation and evidence collection process.The facts of corruption in Guangzhou Customs were quickly delivered to the emperor.According to Xinzhu and Li Shiyao's report to the emperor in 1759, what the foreign merchants said was basically true: "The import of foreign ships starts from the official gifts and silver, and ends with scribes, family members, general officials, and chief officers. The rules and ceremonies are: fire feet, There are a total of 38 names and colors such as opening the cabin, escorting the ship, measuring, pasting, and small packages.
Li Shiyao quickly made a verdict:
One is to punish corruption.In the name of "neglect of supervision", Li Yongbiao, the supervisor of the Guangdong Customs, was dismissed and investigated; the officials of the Guangdong Customs who participated in corruption and extortion were "punished with sticks".
The second is to exempt some bad rules.But since most of the bad money is actually semi-legitimate revenue for the government, this part is legalized. "The names of the rules and ceremonies will be deleted and consolidated for accounting."
The third is to agree to a small request made by the British, that is, the food and daily necessities brought for their own consumption are tax-free. “番商食用所需，已征进口，所有出口税银，准予豁免。”
这三点都是英国人的要求。
接下来的判决，就大出英国人的意料了：
一是英国商人提出多口自由通商等从根本上改革中国外贸制度的要求被斩钉截铁地驳回，告以中华体制，不可变更。
二是处理“汉奸”。在派遣新柱、李侍尧处理此案时，皇帝就提出了一个问题：天朝向来严格控制外国人在中国的活动，以防他们对中国内政有所了解。如今外国人直接闯到天津大沽来告御状，显然是有中国人在背后给出主意，至少也是顾问。要不然，外国人怎么会对告御状这么门儿清？此事必须查清楚。
因此，李侍尧在调查广州海关的同时，倒将更多的精力用于调查到底哪些中国人在英国人告状过程中提供了帮助。
经过细致调查，两个人物被确认与此事件有关，一是执笔请愿书的四川人刘亚匾，一是与洪仁辉有密切交易关系的安徽商人汪圣仪父子。
皇帝命令，将替英国人写状子的刘亚匾砍头。汪圣仪依照“交结外夷罪”，被处以杖六十、徙一年的刑罚，以为其他敢于交通外国人的华人戒。
三是将敢于北上告御状的英国人洪仁辉抓起来，以“勾结内地奸民，代为列款，希图违例别通海口”的罪名，“在澳门圈禁三年，期满后驱逐出境”。
这就是典型的中国方式。中国政府处理民众上访，一直是这样的思路：一方面，惩戒不法官员；另一方面，对于上访者也绝不给好脸子，以免鼓励这种歪风。所有带头上访者，不管有理没理，最后从来没有好下场。
出了这样的事，皇帝认为是对外国人管理不严所致，他命令两广总督重新研究制定对外国人的管理办法。李侍尧精心制定了《防范夷商规条》，上报皇帝，立刻得到了批准。
这些规定有的是新订，有的是重申，具体内容如下：
按中国政府的规定，外商只能在每年五月份到十月份间这个贸易期内可以在中国广州停留进行贸易，其他时间必须回国，或者居于澳门，绝不许在广州过冬。
在广州期间，他们不许到外面租房住。所有已租房屋，必须退回。“十三行街”两边都要派人严守，禁止外国人随意出入。外国人只能在每月初八、十八、二十八三次，由中国商人组织，外出到指定地方参观学习一次。
外商不得任意与中国人交往，中国人也不许为外商提供信息。以前外商经常雇用中国人到浙江等地打听各种物价高低，民间俗称为“千里马”。中国政府得知后严厉禁止，一旦发现，则严拿究治。
外商除了“通事”和“买办”外，不得雇用其他中国人为他们服务。英国人说，“他们只能在地方官员佯作不知情的情况下才能雇用仆役”。
外商无事不许出门闲游，不能到广州城内观光，不得在江中划船取乐。
外商不得在中国进行板球、足球等体育活动。
外商出门，只能步行，不许坐轿。
外商不得学习汉语。刘亚匾被处死的罪名之一，就是教授夷人读书。（直至嘉庆年间的1807年，英籍教士马礼逊到广州学习汉语，还要遮住房间灯光，以保护他的中文教师。）
规定还重申，外商不许带老婆来中国。因为番妇袒胸露臂，有伤风化。另外，中国政府一贯不欢迎外国人在中国久住。如果携带妻儿老小一同住在中国，很容易乐不思蜀，欢送不走，平添不安定因素。
洪仁辉做梦也没想到，他自以为将留为后世传奇的上访就落得了这样的下场。外国商人的受约束状态进一步加剧，而他自己更是被关在澳门的囚牢里，苦苦熬了三年。天朝声威不可挑战，东印度公司的同仁们想尽了办法，也无济于事，只好任他一个人在中国人的监管下受苦。洪仁辉在写给英国同行的信中说：“我被关在一幢像笼子似的四间小房子里，全部门和窗都上锁，每晚七时，敲过锣和竹筒四五声后，即行上锁。早晨六时才开启，有两个人睡在室内，防我逃走。”
在另一封信里，他可怜巴巴地说：“我的脚浮肿很厉害，我不得不穿一双大鞋，在脚跟的三四英寸以上有色肿纹，在伸脚时非常疼痛，希望医生给一些药物治疗……”（《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》）
这就是中国和英国第一次交往的结果。
经过这次挫折，英国政府决定，必须派出使团，直接与中国政府建立联系，否则中英间的贸易问题永远无法解决。因此才有了开头的那篇禀文。
事实上，早在明朝万历十一年（1583年），英国伊丽莎白女王就怀抱着种种梦想，给中国皇帝写过一封小心翼翼的信，派遣商人纽伯莱送往中国，不幸的是，这封信在中途被葡萄牙人截获。
英国人无可奈何。那时的英国还是欧洲二流小国，只能任凭葡萄牙的欺负。
如今是今非昔比了。从万历十一年到乾隆五十七年（1792年），在二百多年的时间里，英国已经从一个无名小国崛起成为头号强国。1588年，英国击败西班牙无敌舰队，迈出了崛起的第一步。其后的英国革命结出了宪政之果，使英国率先在人类社会建立起了三权分立的宪政体制。宪政制度调动起了英国全国的活力。1652年到1674年间，英国连续多次打败了荷兰，将今天的美国彻底划入其殖民圈。1756年到1763年，通过七年战争，英国又彻底打败法国，将印度和加拿大归于自己的统治，成为海上霸主。此时的英国早已称雄欧洲，海外殖民地遍及全球。他们称自己为“世上最强大的国家”。虽然一个是小小三岛，另一个是世界上面积最大的国家。一个人口只有八百万，另一个人口多达三亿。但国势蒸蒸日上的英国人却认为他们有充分的底气来与东方巨人握握手了。
使团的团长是国王的亲戚、著名外交家马戛尔尼勋爵。这个使团规模十分庞大，成员多达七百人，这些人包括了外交官、学者、医师、画家、乐师、技师和仆役，当然还有水手和士兵。这个使团不但是到那时为止的英国历史上规模最庞大的，甚至也创下了欧洲历史的纪录。
使团的使命是与中国建立有史以来第一个正式的外交关系。英国人希望在中国设立大使馆，与中国互派大使。希望与中国签订一个外交条约，建立稳定的外交关系。
当然，英国最迫切的目标是促使中国政府改革外贸体制，允许英国商人自由贸易，以减轻中国官员对外商的剥削和刁难。除此之外，他们还有更大的胃口，他们还打算劝说中国开辟新的、更方便的港口来进行贸易，比如宁波和天津。如果一切顺利，他们还打算提出一个他们自己也感觉有点过分的要求：给英国人提供一个小岛，让英国商人堆放货物，并长年居住。此外，还有一个不是最重要的，却为全体欧洲人所关心的任务：“在不引起中国人怀疑的条件下，使团应该什么都看看，并对中国的实力做出准确的估计。”（佩雷菲特《停滞的帝国——两个世界的撞击》）
1792年，也就是乾隆五十七年九月二十六日上午，马戛尔尼使团分乘安装了六十四门火炮的战舰“狮子”号、巨大的三桅船“印度斯坦”号和一艘小型护卫舰“豺狼”号，从英国南部的朴茨茅斯港乘早潮出发了。
为了敲开中国的大门，英国人确实动足了脑筋。
多年来与中国官员打交道，使他们深知中国政府的骄傲自大和刚愎自用。他们知道，如果以外交谈判的架势前往中国，很可能被拒之门外。所以他们找了一个非常冠冕堂皇的借口——向乾隆皇帝祝寿。当官不打送礼的，给皇帝拜寿，应该会受到皇帝的亲自接见吧。
因此刚刚接到任命通知后，马戛尔尼就向英国外交大臣提出：“不要使北京朝廷感到意外，要先行通知特使行将到来，特别要发出声明，保证此行的目的不是强求改正过去所受的委屈，只是代表国王参加向皇帝祝贺八十大寿的庆典，并附带谈一下两国以后贸易的互利问题。”
对于使团的规模和座舰，英国人也是精心考虑。马戛尔尼认为，要使中国对英国重视起来，必须使使团的外表令人注目。“对付一个如此骄傲的朝廷，它对西方国家的力量与重要性无知，而坚持东方式的妄自尊大，就必须给予皇帝及其大臣以庄严华丽的印象。”（《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》）所以他特意安排以兵舰作为大使座舰，并派轻装步兵和野战炮上船以作检阅之用，以直接展示英国军力。
在准备礼品过程中，他们更是费尽了苦心。他们知道，乾隆皇帝是一个喜欢西洋物品的人。他们也知道，其他欧洲国家的天主教士已经向中国传播了一些欧洲的科技产品。不过那都是一百年前的技术了。“天主教传教士未能把我们最现代的机器展示给中国人。把我们最新的发明如：蒸汽机、棉纺机、梳理机、织布机介绍给中国人，准会让这个好奇而灵巧的民族高兴的。”（佩雷菲特《停滞的帝国——两个世界的撞击》）
他们要选择那些最能体现欧洲技术进步的产品，准备让中国人大吃一惊。
他们带上了他们所能想到的所有好东西：天体运行仪、地球仪、赫歇耳望远镜、帕克透镜、气压计等科学仪器；还有蒸汽机、棉纺机、梳理机和织布机等工业机器；也有吊灯、座钟、机织布料、韦奇伍德瓷器、带有减震装置的马车、用特种钢制作的刀剑等生活用品；也还有榴弹炮、迫击炮、卡宾枪、步枪、连发手枪等先进武器和装备有一百一十门火炮的巨型战舰“君王”号舰艇模型；另外还准备进行机械和光学示范以及热气球和复滑车表演，也准备进行陆军、炮兵表演和铜管乐队的演奏。
他们甚至还带去了一个热气球驾驶员，如果皇帝感兴趣，可以坐着英国的热气球到天上转一圈。那样，他就成为东半球第一个飞上天空的人。英国人充分相信，这些全人类文明的最新成果一定会让中国皇帝大开眼界，对欧洲人刮目相看。因为他们通过贸易深知，中国的工业还停留在中世纪时代，与英国的差距实在是不可以道里计。
英国人判断得很准。乾隆皇帝被这些还没有到来的礼品吊足了胃口。早在英国人到来前几个月，皇帝就已经降旨给直隶、山东、江苏、浙江、福建等沿海几省最高长官，命他们无论何时遇到英国船只，都要马上稳妥地护送进京，不得迟误：“海洋风帆无定，或于浙闽江苏山东等处近海口岸收泊，亦未可知。该督抚等如遇该国贡船到口，即将该贡使及贡物等项派委要员迅速护送进京，毋得稍有迟误。”
对于使团船只到天津之后的搬运问题，皇帝想得也很周到。他提前吩咐：“该贡船到达天津时，若大船难于进（海）口，着穆腾额预备小船，即将贡物拨运起岸，并派员同贡使先行进京。不可因大船难以进口，守候需时，致有耽延也。将此传谕各督抚知之。”
皇帝的心急火燎一目了然。
经过九个月的行驶，英国使团终于抵达了中国。1793年7月26日，他们抵达天津大沽口外。两位中国官员登上了“狮子”号。寒暄过后，他们开门见山地询问起“贡品”情况：“中国官员对于特使携带的礼品更是关心，正式请求先将礼品单送呈皇帝阅览。这项请求自始至终是中国方面所最关心的问题。所有同使节团沿途接触过的中国官员以及在广州同东印度公司代理人方面接触的中国驻广东官员无不提出这一个问题，足见他们对携带的礼品是如何的重视。”（斯当东《英使谒见乾隆纪实》）
并不是他们重视，而是他们知道皇帝心急。
如他们所愿，英国人提交了“贡品”名单和详细的说明。它们被迅速转交给了皇帝。
英国人到达北京时，皇帝正在承德。他的八十三岁生日将在这里举行。皇帝命人将运到北京的英国礼品画出图样，飞马送到承德供他观览。由于一些礼品太大，运输到承德可能损坏，皇帝特意指示，比较大的八件礼品在北京安装，其余那些，随“贡使”一起运到承德，让他先睹为快。
皇帝在承德等了几天，礼品图样一直没有送到，这引来性急的老皇帝一通训斥：
贡使于十七日到园，距今已有六日。今日本报到来，朕以金简等必将如何装饰，及西洋人并首领太监在旁观看，是否得其安装方法，大概情形分晰附本报具奏，乃竟无一言奏及，殊为不解！ ……金简、伊龄阿、徵俱着传旨申饬……仍着金简遵照昨降谕旨，逐一开具尺寸清单，一并迅速具奏，勿再迟延干咎。 ("Qianlong Shangyu File")
皇帝对礼品的关注显然是一个鼓舞人心的消息，英国人把这个理解成对英帝国的重视。与此同时，皇帝在使团北上的一路上又下达了大量指示，指示地方官员对英国人给予最高标准的礼遇。这使英国人认为，这意味着中国人充分认识到了英国在世界上的分量。使团很有可能顺利完成使命，开辟中英贸易的坦途。
两个国家彼此的柔情蜜意一直持续到使团到达承德。
就是在这里，双方发生了第一次不愉快。原因是中国官员提出，马戛尔尼觐见皇帝时，必须行三跪九叩之礼。这让“世界上最强大的国家”的使节大吃一惊，他立马拒绝了这一要求。
误会从一开始就产生了。英国人采取了祝贺生日的伪装，而这很容易被中国人理解为称臣纳贡。而有中国特色的翻译环节，加重了这个误会。
传统中国对翻译的要求不仅仅是“准确”，那些对皇帝心思揣摩得十分透彻的中国翻译深知怎么样才能得到皇帝的欢心。所以在翻译时，他们往往将外国来文的语气加工得十分“恭顺”。前面提到的那篇皇帝读后认为情词极为恭顺的“虔叩天地保佑天朝大人福寿绵长”的呈文，其实原文并不怎么恭顺，翻译们却在汉文中添加了“谨呈天朝大人，恭请钧安”“虔叩天地保佑天朝大人福寿绵长”等原文中根本没有的“惯用语”。同样，英国国书经过中国翻译加工后，也味道大变。
国书的原文是这样的：
英王陛下奉天承运，事事以仁慈为怀，践祚以后，除随时注意保障自己本土的和平和安全，促进自己臣民的幸福、智慧和道德而外，并在可能范围内设法促使全人类同受其惠。在这种崇高精神的指导下，英国的军事威力虽然远及世界各方，但在取得胜利之后，英王陛下对于战败的敌人也在最公平的条件下给以同享和平的幸福。除了在一切方面超越前代增进自己臣民的繁荣幸福外，陛下也曾几次派遣本国最优秀学者组织远航旅行，作地理上的发现和探讨。此种举动绝非谋求扩充本国已经足以满足一切需要的非常广大的领土，亦非谋求获取国外财富，甚至并非谋求有益本国臣民的对外商业。陛下志在研究世界各地的出产，向落后地方交流技术及生活福利的知识，增进整个人类世界的知识水平。
改头换面之下，就成了如下内容：
咭唎国王热沃尔日敬奏中国大皇帝万万岁。热沃尔日第三世蒙天主恩，咭唎国大红毛及佛郎西依拜尔呢雅国王海主恭惟大皇帝万万岁，应该坐殿万万年。本国知道中国地方甚大，管的百姓甚多，大皇帝的心里长把天下的事情、各处的人民时时照管，不但中国的地方，连外国的地方都要保护他，他们又都心里悦服，内外安宁。各国所有各样学问各样技艺，大皇帝恩典都照管他们，叫他们尽心出力，又能长进生发、变通精妙。本国早有心要差人来，皆因本境周围地方俱不平安，耽搁多时。如今把四面的仇敌都平服了，本境平安，造了多少大船，差了多少明白的人漂洋到各处，并不是要想添自己的国土，自己的国土也够了；也不是为贪图买卖便宜，但为着要见识普天下各地方有多少处，各处事情物件可以彼此通融，别国的好处我们能得着，我们的好处别国也能行着。恐各处地方我们有知道不全的，也有全不知道的，从前的想头要知道，如今蒙天主的恩可办成了。要把各处禽兽草木土物各件都要知道，要把四方十界的物件各国互相交易，大家都得便宜。是以长想着要将各国的风俗礼法明白了。如今闻得各处只有中国大皇帝管的地方风俗礼法比别处更高，至精至妙，实在是头一处，各处也都赞美心服的，故此越发想念着来向化输诚。
翻译们自作主张，让英国国王在信中欢呼中国“大皇帝万万岁，应该坐殿万万年”，又删去信中英王说他自己“仁慈为怀”，关注臣民与全人类的幸福，及其军事威力强大，“远及世界各方”，对战败的敌人，“在最公平的条件下，给以同享和平的幸福”等语，反而把这样内容加在乾隆身上，改写成英王赞扬乾隆“大皇帝心里常把天下的事情、各处的人民时时照管”，不论中国人或外国人，大皇帝“恩典”，“都要保护”。
读了这样的译文，能不认为英国人是前来进贡的吗？
“平等精神”和“等级观念”，这是英国人和中国人的矛盾焦点所在。在英国人眼里，他们对中国进行的是一次平等的友好访问。而在中国人眼里，国际关系中根本没有平等二字。凡是到中国来者，都是向中国表达顺从。中国人处理国内事务时，以等级制度为原则来获得秩序。他们处理外交事务时，也依然如此。朝贡体系的核心精神是等级制度